Sociology of Sport Unit VI Compare & Contrast Assignment

Sports in Society:

Issues and Controversies

Chapter 15

Sports and Religions:

Is It a Promising Combination?

The combination of

religion and sport is

especially com m on am ong

Christian athletes in the

United States

Religions: A definition

. . . integrated and socially shared beliefs and rituals

that people accept on faith and use as a source of meaning, guidance, and transcendence.

 Religious beliefs and rituals link people’s lives with a supernatural realm or a divinity.

 Religions and ideologies are similar, although ideologies are linked with the secular, here -and-now, material world.

Depending on conditions, religion and

religious beliefs can lead to

 Powerful forms of

group unity

 A spirit of love and acceptance

 Commitment to prevailing norms

 Acceptance of systems of power

 Devastating group

conflict

 M oral judgments and condemnation

 Rejection of prevailing norms

 Rejection of systems of power

or

Religious beliefs and rituals

. . . are always connected to a sacred and

supernatural realm.

 This connection is based on faith, which is

the foundation of all religions.

 When a religion is challenged, so is the

faith of believers.

The sacred versus the secular

The Secular

Objects/activities

connected with the material world

 Stadiums

 Locker room

 W arm -up drills

 Half-time talk

The Sacred

Objects/activities

connected with the supernatural

 Churches

 Sacristy

 Prayers

 Sermons

M uslim and Hindu

believers don’t

distinguish between

the sacred and

secular as do most

Christians.

Are sports a form of religion? (I)

Both sport and religion  Have places for communal gatherings

 Emerge out of a disciplined quest for perfection

 Are controlled through structured organizations

and hierarchical authority

 Have events that celebrate widely shared values

 Have rituals before, during, and after major

events

(continued)

Are sports a form of religion? (II)

Both sport and religion  Have heroes and legends about heroic

accomplishments

 Evoke intense emotions and give meaning to

people’s lives

 Can be used to distract attention from important

social, political, and economic issues, thereby

becoming like opiates

“Essentialists” focus on differences

between sport and religion

SPORT

 Tied to secular

 Goal = here-and-now victories

 Rooted in fact

 Involves com petition

 Rituals/events = instrum ental and goal oriented

 Based on a spirit of achievem ent and conquest

RELIGION

 Tied to sacred

 Goal = transcendence

 Rooted in faith

 Involves cooperation

 Rituals/services = expressive and

process oriented

 Based on a spirit of hum ility and

love

People adapt images of their gods to fit their values; these

statues “muscularize” Christ for young Christian athletes.

Photos by Jay Coakley

Is there a difference between the ways that Christians and

agnostics play sports? If not, why not?

Photos by Jay Coakley

Religions and sports

as cultural practices

A social constructionist approach

 Based on combinations of cultural, interactionist, and

structural theories

 Assumes that the meanings and practices connected with both sports and religions vary by time and place

 Assumes that variations and changes in sports and

religions usually reproduce dominant values, but also may oppose them

Sociologists study religions because

Religions provide people with a

set of meanings that influences

 Ideology (how people “interpret” the world)

 Actions and relationships

 Ideas about the body, movement, physical activities, and even sports

Studying sports and religions

Using critical questions as a guide

 W hat are the meanings that sports and religions

have for people?

 Do different religious belief systems have unique

relationships with sports and sport participation?

 How does religion influence ideas about the body?

 Are some religious beliefs more easily combined

with sports?

Protestant Christian beliefs

have supported the ideas that

 The body is a tool to be used to establish

mastery over the world

 Competitive success is a legitimate means

for demonstrating individual moral worth

 Sport participation can be used as a form

of religious witness

Organized competitive sports emphasize work & achievement— values

com patible with Protestant religious beliefs. Therefore, playing football on a

church-sponsored team is seen as consistent with both secular and

Protestant-Christian values. Does this occur in other countries?

Why certain forms of Christianity have

become connected with sports

Elements of the Protestant ethic are compatible with the spirit or ethos of sports

• Worldly asceticism

• Rationalization

• Goal directedness

• Individualism

• Achieved status

• Work ethic

• Time ethic

Sports and world religions

 Research is scarce

 Doing studies is difficult because some religions

don’t make sacred versus secular distinctions

 Research is needed to understand links

between various religious beliefs and

 Ideas about the body

 Participation in physical activities and sports

World religions and sports (I)

 Buddhists and Hindus use physical and spiritual

discipline to transcend the self.

 M uslims focus on submitting to Allah’s will.

 M any M uslims have a gender ideology that strongly

influences the conditions under which believers play

sports.

 Some female M uslim women athletes challenge

traditional Islamic beliefs about the body.

(continued)

M eanings given to

sports vary from one religion to

another.

Sociologists deal with meanings

rather than rating religions on “who

has the ultimate truth”

Muslim women

and international sports

 As in all religions, M uslim beliefs may be

interpreted and applied in different ways.

 Fundamentalist M uslims are likely to

 Enforce strict dress codes for wom en athletes

 Require male permission for females to play sports

 “Liberal/secular” M uslim girls and women have

participated in sports without special dress or

male permission.

Religious doctrine often is interpreted in different ways by

believers. In Brighton, England, two M uslim sisters play basketball in public with their father and brother.

Other M uslims might see this as objectionable.

Photo by Jay Coakley

World religions and sports (II)

 Judaism has been linked with sports

when Jews used sports to disrupt ethnic

and religious stereotypes.

 Shinto consists of rituals and

ceremonies that influence the rules and

traditions of Sumo wrestling.

 Animistic religious beliefs of Native

Americans merge the spiritual and

physical worlds.

Sumo is steeped in Shinto ritual and ceremony,

but wrestlers, fans, and sponsors do not use

Sumo to claim or promote Shinto beliefs.

Religion is important in

most societies, but few

people assume a direct

link between religious

beliefs and sports, as

many Christians do.

This player in Sendai,

Japan would not think of

combining Buddhism and

baseball.

Photo by Jay Coakley

Christians and Christian

organizations use sports

1. To promote spiritual growth

2. To recruit new members

3. To promote fundamentalist beliefs

and evangelical orientations

W hen sports become a central cultural activity, churches

may alter services to attract fans — as this one does due to its location next to a stadium.

Photo by Jay Coakley

Universities affiliated with religions have often linked

beliefs and sports to attract students and fans. Photo by Jay Coakley

Athletes, coaches, and teams

have used religion to . . . (I)

1. Cope with uncertainty

2. Stay out of trouble

3. Give meaning to sport participation

4. Put sport participation into a

balanced perspective

5. Establish team solidarity and unity (continued)

Christian athletes often give visible thanks when they

succeed, but seldom do so when they fail.

Photo by Jay Coakley

Athletes, coaches, and teams

have used religion to . . . (II)

6. Reaffirm expectations, rules, and social control on teams

7. Assert autonomy in the face of power

8. Achieve personal and competitive success

9. Market games and sell tickets

Christian athletes

often disagree

about the

appropriateness of

using prayer to

achieve success in

sports.

Photo by Jay Coakley

Public prayers at

sport events in the U.S.

 Public prayers are allowed at all private events in

the U.S.

 All people in the US may pray privately at any time; no law can prevent this.

 On June 19, 2000 the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that

public prayers at games involving teams from public schools violated First Amendment guarantees of religious freedom and church -state separation.

Some public schools ignore this ruling and

continue to say Christian prayers publicly

W hen coaches organize

or promote team prayer, many athletes feel social pressure to

pray, regardless of beliefs.

This can undermine

team unity when there is religious diversity

among players.

Challenges faced when combining

sports and religious beliefs

For Athletes

Determining the worth of sport

participation as an act of worship when:

 Violence and intimidation are part of

the game

 The aggressive pursuit of personal success is expected

 There is an emphasis on self-promotion

Christian religious beliefs and power and performance sports:

a proposed model of conflict, doubt, and resolution

Should actions that

could kill or seriously injure

others be considered as “acts

of worship”?

Strategies for resolving doubts

Christian athletes use 3 strategies: 1. Focus on ascetic aspects of sports — the

discipline, self-denial, and sacrifice

2. Play sports as before, but  Ignore moral questions

 Use sports to give witness and evangelize

 Focus on good works and service off the field

3. Give priority to religious beliefs by  Changing behavior

 Playing pleasure and participation sports

 W ithdrawing from sports

People in all cultural

groups construct images of deities that

reflect their values and experiences.

This shirt would

appeal to some Christian men who

spend time in gyms.

Photo by Jay Coakley

When Christianity is combined

with power and performance sports

 Sports change very little, if at all

 Religion becomes “muscularized”

 It emphasizes discipline, duty, and self -righteousness rather than stewardship, social responsibility, and

humility

 Winning, obedience to coaches, and improving skills become moral virtues so that the sport ethic is

sanctified