Sociology of Sport Unit V Essay Critique

Sports in Society:

Issues and Controversies

Chapter 8

Race and Ethnicity:

Are They Important in Sports?

The challenges created by racial and ethnic diversity are

among the most important ones that we face as we live, work, and play together in the twenty-first century

Photo by Mike Collins

Race =

. . . a population of people who are believed to be naturally or biologically distinct from other populations.

Race depends on a classification system through which meanings are given to particular physical traits.

Ethnicity =

. . . a cultural heritage that people use to identify a particular population.

An ethnic population = a category of people regarded as socially distinct because they share a way of life, a collective history, and a sense of themselves as a people.

Ethnic minority =

. . . a socially identified population that

suffers disadvantages due to systematic

discrimination and has a strong sense of

social togetherness based on shared

experiences of past and current

discrimination.

Creating race:

The origins of an ideology

Racial classification systems were developed as white Europeans explored and colonized the globe and found that there were

physical differences between people.

 These systems were used to justify colonization, conversion, and even slavery and genocide.

 According to these systems, white skin was the

standard, and dark skin was associated with intellectual inferiority and slowed development.

Racial ideology

. . . interrelated ideas and beliefs that are widely

used to classify human beings in categories assumed to b biological and related to

attributes such as intelligence, temperament, and physical abilities

Racial ideology has been used by white people to

 Give themselves moral permission to colonize and

exploit dark-skinned people without guilt

 Define dark-skinned people as “the white man’s burden” in need of moral salvation and civilizing

Racial ideology

in the United States

Between the 17th and 20th centuries

a person’s humanity and moral worth came to be associated with skin color because

1. White Americans needed justification for political expansion.

2. Whites Americans sought to control blacks after the abolition

of slavery.

3. Scientists claimed to have proof of the natural inferiority of “colored” people and the natural superiority of people with

“Caucasian” ancestry.

In the U.S., whiteness became the foundation for an American identity and a prerequisite for citizenship.

Racial ideologies tend to support

Racism: attitudes, actions, and policies based

on the belief that people in one racial category are inherently superior to people

in one or more other categories

Genocide: the systematic destruction of an identifiable population

Stereotypes: generalizations used to define and judge all individuals who are classified

in a particular racial category

The problem with

race & racial ideology

 Research shows that race is not a valid biological

concept because external traits are not linked with patterns of internal differences.

 Race is a social construction that is based on social

definitions and the meanings that people give to physical traits.

 Racial classification systems vary by culture and over

time, and they are based on arbitrary distinctions related to continuous physical traits (see diagram).

Using critical theory to ask questions about

racial classification systems

 Whose classification systems are used?

 Who uses them?

 Why are some people so dedicated to

using certain classification systems?

 What are the consequences of usage?

 What strategies do people use to minimize negative consequences?

 How can the systems be challenged?

 What occurs when systems change?

Snow white Midnight

black

Continuous traits = skin color, height, brain size, nose width, leg

length, leg length ratio, # of fast-twitch muscle fibers, etc.

Discrete traits = blood type, sickle cell trait, etc.

Racial category lines are drawn on the basis of continuous traits. Therefore, they can be drawn anywhere and everywhere on this

continuum! We could draw 2 or 2000 lines. Our decisions are social decisions, not decisions based on biology. Some people draw many; others draw few; some reject lines altogether.

Racial categories: Drawing color lines in society

Skin color continuum

Tiger Woods

disrupts dominant racial ideology

“I am CABLINASIAN”

CA = Caucasian (father)

BL = Black (father)

IN = Indian (father)

ASIAN = Asian (mother)

“Race” in the United States

“Race” is a primitive but powerful classification

system that has been used worldwide.

“Race” in the United States is unique because

 It is based on a two-category classification

system premised on the rule of hypo-descent or

the “one-drop rule”

 It was defined by white men to insure the “purity”

of the “white race” and their absolute control of

property

 It persists in the face of evidence contradicting

the popular notion of racial purity

Race, racial ideology, & sports

Racial ideology encourages people to  “See” sport performances in “racialized” terms,

i.e., in terms of skin color

 Use whiteness as the taken-for-granted standard in sports

 Explain the success or failure of people with dark skin in racial terms

 Do research designed to “discover” racial difference

This statement is

laughable, but it has been widely accepted when applied to dark-

skinned athletes.

Searching for

“jumping genes” in black bodies

This search is misleading because

 It is based on oversimplified ideas about genes

and how they work.

 It mistakenly assumes that jumping is a simple physical activity related to a single gene or

interrelated set of genes.

 It ignores that jumping is a cultural performance as well as a physical act.

The racially “natural athlete”?

There is no evidence showing that skin color

is related to physical traits that are essential for athletic excellence across sports or in

any particular sport.

Research summary (Genetic factors and athletic performance)

 Are there genetic differences between

individuals? YES

 Are genetic characteristics related to athletic

excellence? YES

 Could one gene account for success across a range

of different sports? PROBABLY NOT

 Are skin color genes and physical performance

genes systematically connected? NO

(continued)

Research summary (continued)

 Are physical development and the expression

of skills in sports related to cultural definitions of skin color and race? YES

 Do cultural ideas about skin color and race

influence the interpretation of and meaning given to the movement and achievements of athletes? YES

Social origins of athletic excellence

 A cultural emphasis on achievement in activities that have special cultural meaning

 Resources to support widespread participation among young people

 Opportunities to gain rewards through success

 Access to those who can teach tactics and strategies

Traditional racial ideology used in sports

The achievements of white athletes are based on:

 Character

 Culture

 Organization

The achievements of black athletes are based on:

 Biology

 “Natural” abilities

 Genetic heritage

A sociological

hypothesis to explain

the achievements of

black male athletes

When I took this photo, the

father told his son not to smile. For him, playing football was serious business that could

provide a mobility avenue for his son and the entire family.

Photo by Jay Coakley

A sociological hypothesis

Racial ideology + discrimination + sport opportunities

Beliefs about biological and cultural destiny

+ Motivation to develop skills

OUTSTANDING ACHIEVEMENTS IN SPORTS

The power of racial ideology

Black male students often have a difficult time shaking “athlete” identity labels that are based on prevailing racial ideology in the U.S.  Many people don’t “see” an honor student when they

see a black male.

Young people from all racial backgrounds may make choices influenced by racial ideology.  They may think in terms of “black sports” and

“white sports.”

In everyday life, racial ideology is integrally linked to ideas about gender and social class.  The black male body has been socially constructed in

connection with white fears and fascination.

Racial ideology influences some—not all—white people to avoid

sports in which black people have a record of excellence.

Race, gender, & social class

intersect in sports through racial ideology (I)

In Euro-American racial history there have been

 Strong fears of the physical power and prowess of

(oppressed) black men

 Powerful anxieties about the sexual appetites,

attributes, and capabilities of (angry) black men

 Deep fascination with the movement of the black

body

THEREFORE, the black male body became a valuable entertainment commodity

and black people saw it as a mobility asset.

Race, gender, & social class

intersect in sports through racial ideology (II)

In the U.S., black female athletes must

 Closely monitor their presentation of self so

they are not perceived by whites as “too black”

 Tone down their toughness to appear

amicable and nonthreatening

If they don’t, they may be referred to as

“. . . tough girls . . . nappy headed ho’s.”

Race, gender, & social class

intersect in sports through racial ideology (III)

In the U.S., the body of the black female

has been sexualized and/or viewed as a source of nurturance

 This has led to stereotypes of black

women as oversexed on the one hand, and as “Aunt Jemima” on the other hand.

 These stereotypes continue to be

expressed in the 21st century

When pro tennis player Caroline Wozniacki mimicked Serena Williams she

revived a global legacy of racist beliefs about black female sexuality and what

happened to Saartjie Baartman, caricatured in this 200 years old racist image.

Serena Williams knew this history.

Historical consequences of racial ideology

for African Americans in sports

 Desegregation of revenue-producing sports

 Continued racial exclusion in “social” sports

 Position stacking in team sports

 Racialized interpretations of achievements

 Management barriers for blacks

 Skewed distribution of African Americans in

U.S. colleges and universities

Sport participation among

African Americans

The facts show that

 Prior to the 1950s, sports in the U.S. were

racially segregated.

 African Americans participate in a very

limited range of sports.

 African Americans are clearly

underrepresented in most sports.

 They’re not “taking over” sports, as some whites

continue to believe.

In the face of racial

segregation, blacks could earn money by turning sports into entertainment

that reaffirmed the racist stereotypes of whites.

There was cultural space for blacks to entertain whites as

clowns, but not to play sports with whites.

African Americans

“tolerated” these stereotypes because they

opened some doors for them to play sports and

make some money in the process.

The original Harlem Globetrotters were a

classic example of this, as were the “Zulu Cannibal

Giants”.

Sport participation among

Native Americans

 Native Americans comprise dozens of diverse

cultural groups.

 Traditional Native American sports combine physical activities with ritual and ceremony.

 Native Americans often fear losing their

culture when playing Euro-American sports.

 Widely accepted racial and ethnic stereotypes about Native Americans have restricted their access to sport participation.

Identity theft in sports?

Using stereotypes of Native Americans as a basis

for team names, logos, & mascots is a form of bigotry and identity theft, regardless of the

intentions of those who do it

 Are there any conditions under which a group or organization could use the cultural and religious

images of others for their own purposes in sports?

 What if a school named its teams the Olympians and used the Olympic 5-ring logo as their logo?

 What if a Native American high school team called itself the Slave Masters and used Thomas Jefferson

as a mascot?

Pick your pennant. Only one

is being used, and it has the most demeaning nickname

If you want [your mascot] to be

a savage—use your own picture. . . . How would you feel if the team was called the

Washington Darkies? —Former Colorado senator Ben

Nighthorse Campbell, the only Native American senator in U.S. history

The African

American equivalent

of the Cleveland

Indians name and

logo—outdated

name and

stereotyped

caricature for a logo.

When bigotry is

institutionalized, it’s

difficult to eliminate.

“Honoring” Chief Osceola at Florida State University

Sit on his

face—

stadium seat

Wipe your

feet on his

face—car

floor mat

Relax on

his face-

with a

beanbag

chair

Wipe your

face with

his face—

napkin

More “Honor” . . . (?)

Your

cutting

board

chief

Dry off with

chief bath

towels

Your

Christmas

chief

ornament

Hang your chief

Using Native American

team names creates offensive media coverage.

I’ve collected nearly 100

headlines that put “Indians,”, “Reds,” “Redskins,” “Braves,”

“Chiefs,” “Savages,” etc. in a

context that is offensive.

Why have stereotypes about Native

Americans persisted in U.S. sports?

A Colorado high

school honors

“their Indian” by

walking, running,

and sitting on his

image.

Name and logo of a University of Northern Colorado intramural

team protesting the use of an offensive name and logo used by a nearby high school (see previous slide).

Sport participation among Latinos

Native-born and naturalized citizens  Participation patterns vary by national origin, heritage, and

generation

 Experiences include bridging cultural gaps and dealing with stereotypes related to Mexicans, Puerto Ricans, Cubans

Latin Americans working as athletes in the U.S.  Long history of Latino players in U.S. sports

 40% of players under contract in Major League Baseball Latinos

 Cultural and social adjustment problems are numerous

Undocumented workers and family members  Little knowledge; access to information is scarce

 Sports are used strategically to share information with other workers about how to survive in the U.S.

Latinos often link sports with their history and heritage

Latinas today can now see athletes who look like them, but we know little

about their experiences in sports and how they integrate sports into their lives

Sport participation among

Asian Pacific Americans (APAs)

 Cultural heritage and histories of APAs are diverse.

 Heritage traced to at least 18 nations and dozens of cultures.

 The sport participation patterns of APAs vary with their immigration histories.

 People from Asia are seen by many Americans as “foreign” even if they are natural-born U.S. citizens in families that have been in the U.S. for many generations.

 APAs have long histories of sport participation in U.S.

 Some have used sports to challenge and discredit stereotypes, some to gain acceptance in schools.

 Tensions may occur if APAs don’t embrace traditional U.S. sports.

Stereotypes about Chinese people were disrupted

by Jeremy Lin as he excelled in the NBA.

Olympic speed skating and

Dancing with the Stars

Champion Apolo Ohno

embraces his Japanese and

Euro-American heritage,

serving as a model for others

with “hybrid” ethnic identities.

Race, ethnicity, and sport:

Global issues

 Research on global soccer has found three primary expressions of racism  Direct racism—fans insulting players with bigoted slurs

 Indirect racism—chants or banners promoting bigoted political agendas

 Racism on the field—negative comments made by and

to athletes, coaches, referees

 Racism has become a major problem in sports worldwide as global migration patterns bring

diverse peoples into contact with each other

As European professional soccer has become more racially diverse,

expressions of racism have become more common. Today there are

programs designed to discourage racism. Success has been spotty.

As England tries to deal with expressions of

racism and homophobia in sports, some venues have policies that formally ban them

Making sports inclusive is a

major challenge, regardless of nation and culture.

The Irish Football association in Northern

Ireland has made concerted attempts to eliminate racism and related forms of

bigotry from sports.

Photo by Mike Collins

The dynamics of

racial and ethnic relations in sports

 Race and ethnicity remain significant in sports

today

 Today’s challenges are not the ones faced in the past

 Racial and ethnic issues don’t disappear when

desegregation occurs

 The challenge of dealing with intergroup relations never disappears— it only changes in terms of the issues that must be confronted and resolved

 Racial and ethnic diversity brings potential vitality

and creativity to sports

The dynamics of

racial and ethnic relations in sports

There are three major challenges related to

racial and ethnic relations in sports today:

(1) eliminating racial and ethnic exclusion in sport participation

(2) dealing with and managing racial and ethnic diversity by creating an inclusive

culture on sport teams and in sport organizations

(3) integrating positions of power in sport organizations

Eliminating

racial and ethnic exclusion in sports (I)

Certain sports have built-in incentives for

eliminating racial segregation.

1. Team owners and management benefit when they don’t exclude talented players.

2. Racial ideologies and stereotypes are easy to suspend in the face of precise, objective performance data.

3. All team members benefit from the achievements of teammates, regardless of their race or ethnicity.

(continued)

Eliminating

racial and ethnic exclusion in sports (II)

4. Superior performance by a player does not mean

he or she will be promoted to management

5. Team members are not required to socialize and be friends off the field to win games

6. Ethnic minority athletes always remain under the

control of (white) team owners and management

These incentives offset the threats often perceived by dominant group members when desegregation occurs; sports without these incentives remain

segregated to some degree

After desegregation:

Managing racial and ethnic diversity

Racial and ethnic diversity creates

management challenges related to

 Social dynamics on teams

 Social dynamics among spectators

 Marketing athletes, teams, and leagues

NOTE: The global recruitment of players

insures that diversity issues will always

exist in sports.

The films The Jackie Robinson Story and 42—The True Story of An

American Legend showed that Branch Rickey, the Dodgers manager, and the team faced new challenges after desegregation.

Jackie Robinson and others who

have broken barriers in sports have been closely watched and judged by those who are

privileged by prevailing definitions of skin color, ethnicity,

gender, sexuality, and (dis)ability.

Barrier breakers are under constant surveillance (ON TRIAL!) by those waiting to find a reason

to attack them.

Integrating positions of power

in sport organizations

People seldom share power voluntarily  Even when sport participation is racially and

ethnically mixed, power in sports is not readily shared.

 The movement of minorities into coaching and administrative positions has been very slow.

 Social and legal pressures are still needed before power is fully shared.

Most sport organizations are:

 White-dominated

 White-identified

 White-centered

Success by ethnic minorities requires living to standards set by whites and acting in ways that whites define as appropriate.

To defy these standards is to risk being defined as deviant, arrogant, undisciplined— as a problem, as too “not-like-us” (whites).

Sports may bring people

together, but this does not occur automatically, nor

does it make race and

ethnicity irrelevant in sports.

Bringing people together doesn’t lead to positive

outcomes without strategies based on an awareness of

racial and ethnic relations.

Photo by Jay Coakley

Recent changes

As social conditions change, so do ideas and beliefs about race

and the bodies of athletes

 Most top boxers today are Latino, Eastern European, and South

Asian

 Africans are widely recruited by previously all-white men’s soccer

clubs in Europe

 White Americans are being replaced by young women from Russia

at the top levels of professional tennis and from Korea in golf

 Forty-five percent of players on Major League Baseball teams are

Latin American and Asian

 Twenty-eight percent of NBA players were born outside the United

States

Ideas about “race” and bodies vary over time and with changing circumstances

Change requires:

 Regular and direct confrontation of racial and

ethnic issues by people in positions of power

 A new vocabulary for dealing with new forms

of racial and ethnic diversity in our lives

 Training sessions for management and

players dealing with practical problems and issues, not just feelings