Sociology help

Advertising to Women: Who Are We in Print and How

Do We Reclaim Our Image?

Jane C. Levy

ABSTRACT. In spite ol" the enormous power that women wield in the marketplace, the role of women in advertisements is not commensurate with women as a powerful group. Studies demonstrate a gender bias in advertising, such that, despite their buying power, women are portrayed in stereotypical roles. This manuscript discusses ways that women are depicted in magazine advertisements and the effect of these niarketing strategies on society. Also included is a discussion on ways that consum- ers can mitigate these inlluetices. The article closes with a case example using Narrative Therapy and media literacy. doi:10, l300/J456v02n04_07 [Article copies available for a fee from The Haworth Document Delivery Ser- vice: 1-800-HAWORTH. E-mcúl acldress: <[email protected]> Website: <http://www.HaworthPress.com> © 2006/2007 by The Haworth Press. All rights reserved.]

KEYWORDS. Women, advertising, stereotypes. Narrative Therapy, media, gender bias, marketing, creativity

Jane C. Levy is a graduate student at Lewis & Clark Graduate School of Educatioii and Counseling,

Addtess correspondence to: Jane Levy, 7254 NE Sloneybrook Street, Hillsboro, OR 97124 (E-mail: [email protected]).

Joumal of Cteativily in Mental Health, Vol. 2(4) 20()6/20(}7 .Available online at hup://jcmh.haworthptess.com

© 2006/2007 by The Haworth Press. All tights reserved. doi:10.l300/J456v()2n04_07 . 75

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In the late nineteenth century, manufactured goods became part of the American marketplace. The industrialization led to high volumes of consumer goods, generating competition between manufacturers. The competition resulted in advertisements that would convince consumers to purchase specific items and brands (Hill, 2002). For well over 100 years, marketers have targeted women as consumers, almost to the ex- clusion of men, because since the beginning of brand advertising, women have been the primary purchasers of consumer goods (Hill).

Women continue to have that kind of power in the marketplace. In 1998, women purchased 89% of men's clothing in department stores (Hill, 2002), and continue to be the primary purchasers of groceries, household items, and children's clothing. Additionally, women have become an integral part ofthe workforce in the last forty years. In 1999, 60% of women over the age of 16 were employed, and as of 2002, 33.7% of employed women were employed as managers or in profes- sional positions, as compared to 28.9% of employed men (Hill).

Women are also starting their own businesses in record numbers. In 2005, 50% of privately held firms in the United States were owned by women, and 55% of new companies are started by women (Koernig & Granitz, 2006). Women, then, are in positions to make significant busi- ness purchasing decisions. At the same time, the increasing numbers of working women has coincided with the numbers of women who are marrying later in life, or not marrying at all. All these factors have led to an increase in women as heads of household and responsible for buying decisions (Mastin, Alison, Hamilton, & Tarr, 2004). • Marketers reach women through a variety of methods, particularly through magazine advertisements (Hill, 2002). Indeed, magazines are a significant forum by which marketers reach their target audiences. As such, this manuscript begins with a discussion on how women are de- picted in magazine advertisements, followed by a discussion on how marketing strategies affect society. The authors suggest ways that con- sumers can mitigate these infiuences, and close with a case example in which the negative influence of advertising is addressed through Narrative Therapy and media literacy.

HOW ARE WOMEN DEPICTED IN MAGAZINE ADVERTISEMENTS?

Considering the enormous power that women wield in the market- place, the role of women in advertisements is not commensurate with

Jane C, Levy 77

women as a powerful group. Since the 195O's, studies demonstrate a gender bias in advertising, such that, despite their buying power, women have been portrayed in stereotypical roles (Courtney & Lockeretz, 1971). Three decades ago, Courtney & Lockeretz conducted a content analysis of advertisements in Life, Look, Newsweek, The New Yorker, Time, Saturday Review, U.S. News & World Report, and Reader's Digest. They found that women were rarely portrayed work- ing outside of the home, were often depicted as dependent on men, and were typically shown promoting low-cost items. Men, on the other hand, were used to advertise more high profile products, such as banks, entertainment media, travel, and industrial products and companies. These results were later confirmed in a content analysis conducted by Belkaoui and Belkaoui (1976). In spite of emerging opportunities for women, there was no statistically significant change between the 1950's portrayal of women in magazine advertisements and their portrayal in the 197O's.

More recently, Kang (1997) compared advertisements from 1979 and 1991 issues of Vogue, Mademoiselle, and McCall's magazines to determine if their portrayal had changed over a twelve year period. Kang found that while women continued to be primarily depicted as homemakers in advertisements, they were also more often depicted working outside the home in the 1991 advertisements. During the 198O's, this perception was even celebrated by marketers who depicted the woman who can do it all as the ideal, giving her the moniker, Supermom (Lazarus & Wunderlich, 2000). However, the 1991 adver- tisements also showed a significant increase in the number of women who were presented as decorative and/or sexual.

Women are portrayed in stereotypical roles more often in magazines like Vogue, than in the general interest magazine. Time (Lindner, 2004). For example. Vogue's portrayal of women involves them lowering themselves physically or embracing a man's body for support, mentally drifting from the scene in which they are displayed, or wearing reveal- ing or scant clothing. Further, over half of the advertisements in Vogue were objectifying women (Lindner). In such cases, only one part of a woman is seen, as if the rest of that person did not exist (Lazarus & Wunderlich, 2000).

This is classically illustrated on a cover of Hustler magazine (Laza- rus & Wunderlich, 2000) that depicted a woman's legs propped outside of a meat grinder. Other advertisements also depict women in this light, showing portions of a woman's legs, breasts, or posterior. In one illus- tration, a woman's legs with fishnet stockings and high heels are seen

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coming out of a trashcan (Lazarus & Wunderlich). Interestingly, some of these advertisements focus on selling products to women (Lazarus & Wunderlich).

The increase in sexual/decorative displays was not only seen in gen- eral interest magazines and fashion-based magazines; it also occurred in Ms. Magazine. Ms. magazine was created in 1973 as a voice for feminist issues (Ferguson, Kreshl, & Tinkham, 1990). In fact, the magazine has a specific policy regarding advertisements and its advertising salespeople are trained to be agents of change (Ferguson et al.). For women to be stereotypically objectified in magazines that promote feminist values was surprising.

WHAT PRODUCTS ARE BEING ADVERTISED TO WOMEN?

Despite women's advances in social roles and relative increases in societal power, stereotypical advertisements abound. For example, in Essence magazine, where the audience is primarily African American, only 2% of advertisements featured financial services products and 1% featured technology products. Further, a majority ofthe technology ad- vertisements depicted men, not women, as models (Mastin et al., 2004). Twenty one percent of the advertisements in Essence represented beauty products, 28.5% represented fashion or accessories, while all other products, such as child-related food and drink, and healthcare, were below 8% of all advertising. In another example. Ladies Home Journal, whose audience is primarily white women, had the highest percentage of advertisements for beauty products (Mastin et al).

In investigating other magazine genres, such as business and technol- ogy magazines, data indicated that women constitute one third of their readership (Koernig & Granitz, 2006). However, out of the 117 adver- tisements seen in Forbes magazine, 83 featured male models, 16 fea- tured men and women in the advertisement, and only 18 advertisements featured female models, alone (Koernig & Granitz). One industry that promotes women in its advertisements is the diet in- dustry (Hill, 2002). Although this industry advertises to men, women and young girls are often featured in their advertisement campaigns (Lazarus & Wunderlich, 2000). For example, Adweek magazine cited a recent survey of 4th grade girls which reported that 80% of the girls were afraid of gaining weight and felt they were already too fat (Kiley, 1989). No doubt, advertisements have their costs. .

Jane c. Levy 79

THE EFFECT OF ADVERTISEMENTS ON WOMEN

Media and Young Girls

Young girls often rely on magazines for advice regarding their per- sonal lives (Comiteau, 2005). If magazines promote a specific product as a solution for some perceived problem, the young reader may rely upon that product. The magazines and marketers know that girls are fu- ture consumers, so establishing brand-name recognition and developing a feeling of dependency in the girl will help insure that product manu- facturer survives.

Seventeen magazine is popular with many teens around the world. In 1955, it advertised to marketers that their magazine "completely domi- nates the great under-20 market" (Hill, 2002, p. 16-17). The advertise- ment stated, "Start her with your brand in Seventeen," followed by "It's easier to start a habit than to stop one" (Hill, p. 16-17). So, if models in teen magazines are promoting makeup and designer jeans, young girls throughout the country are likely to incorporate those jeans and that makeup into their concept of femininity. Indeed, little girls will likely attempt to copy the images they view in magazines because those images invade their psyche.

Kilbourne (1990) found that both men's and women's perceptions of women's abilities as managers were negatively skewed after viewing advertisements that depicted women in stereotypical roles. Conversely, the group of men and women who saw advertisements with women in executive roles was more likely to perceive women as capable manag- ers. In that vein, if women are continuously portrayed as the only pur- chasers of cleaning products and baby goods, sharing these re- sponsibilities with their male counterparts could be problematic.

Objectification

Another impact of the media on society involves the increase in the objectification of women. Reports indicate that both men and women were more willing to accept sexual aggression against women and were more willing to accept gender role stereotyping after viewing advertise- ments portraying women as sex objects (McKay & Covell, 1997), The media's impact can also be seen along racial lines. For example, in 70% of advertisements where a model wore animal print, the model was a black woman, and the print was, of a predatory animal. Studies have shown that women wearing animal print are perceived as more sexually

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active, less educated, and less likely to care about social problems than other women. Studies also indicate that people believe that animal print is more likely to be worn by a black woman (Pious & Neptune, 1997).

Another manner in which women can be harmed by these advertise- ments comes in the "packaging" of women models. For example, the typical American model is 5'9" in height, weighs 110 pounds, and wears a size zero dress. Advertisements are altered by computer imaging to make them look even more flawless in appearance (Lazarus & Wunderlich, 2000). Alternatively, American women are, on average, 5'4"in height, weigh 155 pounds, and wear a size 14 dress (Dahl, 2006). Linder (2004) found that even passive exposure to models in magazines increased negative body image in the young women who viewed them.

Thus, it is not surprising that ten times as many women have eating disorders than men, and there are ten times as many dieting advertise- ments and articles in popular women's magazines than in a similar sam- ple of popular men;s magazines (Harrison, 2003). At the same time, eating disorders in women have dramatically increased over the last three decades (Comiteau, 2005). Concomitantly, from 1959 to 1978, Playboy centerfolds and Miss America Pageant contestants' weights have also decreased (Garner, Garfmkle, Schwartz, & Thompson 1980), so that now 69% of Playboy centerfolds and 60% of pageant contestants are 15% below their expected weight for their height (Wiseman, Gray, Mossiman, & Ahrens 1992). Being 15% below body weight is a symp- tom of anorexia nervosa (Harrison). No doubt, these influences impact young girls and women who present for therapy.

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY AND THE MEDIA

Therapists working with young girls and women presenting for ther- apy with these issues may use Bandura's social learning theory as an ad- junct to their work. Bandura' s ( 1977) theory posits that humans are born with the ability to learn by observation. By observing others, we see how to interact in our social world, and this serves as a guide for our ac- tions. For instance, watching a baseball game and seeing everyone stand up during the seventh inning and sing "Take Me Out to the Ballgame" will encourage the person watching to expect this again at the next game, and may feel more comfortable participating without ever being told or understanding why this is done.

Jane C. Levy 81

Bandura's theory (1977) also suggests that social learning occurs in a four-step process: First, we pay attention to the modeled behavior; sec- ond, we retain the image or activities that weie being modeled; third, we reproduce the modeled behavior; and finally, we reproduce the behavior to receive the perceived award. For example, a young girl who sees a magazine depicting teenage girls laughing together, talking on thin, pink cell phones, will attempt to have her parent purchase the phone. She is attempting to reproduce the symbolic representation that she saw in the advertisement: obtain phone, be popular.

Social Learning Theory posits that if a message is repeatedly deliv- ered, it will eventually shape the perception of the reader (Bandura, 1977). Concomitantly, because advertisers also require that the actual articles subtly promote messages they are trying to send in their adver- tisements, these messages are profoundly emphasized. This practice was popularized as early as 1934, when, while courting marketers, Mc- Call's promised that any product marketed in their magazine would be complimented by editorial content. The practice of altering editorial content, as well as placing advertisements in specific locations in a magazine, such as cigarette advertisements far away from articles on health, medicine, or death, continue today (Hill, 2002).

Studies have confirmed that repeated exposure to a specific adver- tisement in a rnagazine causes people to retain the information pre- sented in the advertisenient (Bailey, 2006). Thus, as social learning theory suggests, the more a person sees an advertisement, the more that image is retained, and the more likely the person will regard the mod- eled behavior as acceptable and expected (Bailey).

Some marketers have tried to court women who feel insulted by the barrage of too-thin and too-perfect female models. Dove has launched a campaign called Real Beauty. This campaign attempts to use very at- tractive women who are different in shapes and sizes to obtain a follow- ing of women who want that kind of advertising., However, many marketers are skeptical of following Dove's lead (Comiteau, 2005). Advertisers purport that although women say they want to see "real" people in advertisements, such is not always the case. The chairman for the advertisement agency, McCann Erickson, explains, "If the advertis- ing you see on TV is not exactly how women really are, it's because that's what women want to see. The consumer gets the advertising the consumer wants. Everything is tested" (Cotiiiteau).

In order to affect advertising practices, women and men have to make the current model ineffectual. About-Face and Media Smart Kids are two groups that educate consumers about stereotypes in advertising.

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teach them to think critically, and demand different advertisements (Comiteau, 2005). Advertising Women of New York also works toward this effort by disseminating "The Good, Bad & Ugly Awards" to cele- brate positive portrayals of women in advertising. The group also ex- poses ineffectual and offensive portrayals (Comiteau). These groups leave us with the message that women and men must demand, through their purchasing power, that advertising be more real and less harmful. If we purchase Dove soap and write to say, "I did this because I like your advertising campaign," that encourages them to continue the campaign.

Attempting to change cultural attitudes requires attracting the atten- tion of young girls and boys, as well. Peer pressure is apparent in girls as young as six (Dohnt & Tiggemann, 2006). Actively telling children that the images in advertisements are not socially acceptable may also be helpful. Further, parents and teachers should stress to boys and girls that models in magazines are not healthy. In fact, teaching children to think critically about the images that they are shown in magazine advertise- ments, on television, and anywhere else is a positive step. Telling girls and boys that the models in magazines are touched up by cameras and computers may make young boys and girls feel better about their own bodies. Calvin Klein can only sell clothes to girls who want to buy them. If he is using people to model his clothes that the children see pejora- tively, chances are he will lose some market share.

CASE EXAMPLE

In the following case example, a counselor works with a client whose self-concept appears to be permeated by sexual stereotypes portrayed in magazines. The counselor utilizes Bandura's Social Learning Theory as a philosophical base and Narrative Therapy tools to facilitate media lit- eracy. Media literacy is often taught in schools so that children can think critically about the content the media delivers, and helps children recon- sider the underlying messages they and their peers absorb. Narrative Therapy focuses on messages sent from the dominant culture and inter- nalized by the individual, such that that person's self-concept (the story that they tell about themselves) is altered (Speedy, 2000). In this exam- ple. Narrative Therapy is used by the client to reflect on how advertise- ments and other media images have affected the client. Further, Narrative Therapy stresses externalizing stories or messages so clients critically evaluate the value of these messages (Speedy).

Jane C. Levy 83

Denise

\. Denise is a 19-year-old woman beginning her sophomore year at a private liberal arts college. Denise's mother is Hispanic and her father is

! Caucasian. She has two younger brothers. Denise reports strong ties to \ her entire family. She is self-referred for counseling.

During the first counseling session, Denise reported that she was generally a happy person and has several close friends. She also re-

1 ported that, although she is attracted to men, she has never had a boy- I friend. In a subsequent counseling session, Denise expressed that she I was afraid to expose her body, specifically her thighs, which she re- I ported to be "disgusting." Denise also noted that she never wore shorts ! and preferred wearing extremely baggy pants, or long, flowing skirts to ; hide her thighs. Denise described her fears that people would notice her ' thighs, fears that interfered with her social life. She recalls first experi- I encing these fears in puberty. Sadly, Denise recalls noticing how dis- ' gusting she perceived her thighs to be when she was eleven years old. I Sadly, this perception has caused her increasing anxiety since that time. Í After hearing Denise's perspective, the therapist asked questions to ¡ clarify factors that influenced her perceptions. Denise explored what I life was like before she worried about her thighs and overall appearance , and was able to examine the media's influence on her thoughts. Accord- i' ing to Denise, her issues with her body began at puberty. She described 1 how, at that time, she began to notice pictures of beautiful girls in maga- ! zines and on television. She and her friends frequently discussed their I concerns relative to this issue. Denise also described feeling pressure to

be something she did not feel was possible for her. She read in maga- ¡ zines promises that she could lose ten pounds in ten weeks. The maga- ! zines also featured pictures of thin, attractive women seemingly living ' the life she would want to lead. ' . I Denise described feeling pressure to be physically perfect. Though , ' she had been a good student and a good friend, her fears about her thighs ' had clouded these qualities.

She acknowledged receiving messages in the advertisements that suggested a person could not be happy or loved unless they were very thin and pretty. The counselor and Denise discussed how those mes-

I sages informed her opinion about herself. At first, Denise became angry ' at herself for being susceptible to media images. The therapist guided \. the discussion away from blaming Denise, and focused on how difficult

it can be for people to avoid the barrage of images they encounter in magazines and the media. •

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As a homework assignment, Denise researched advertisements and articles. She wanted to determine how many images depicted women with an average size and weight for an American female. Denise re- turned to her next counseling session and reported that she had looked at the magazines in her dorm room and found only two advertisements, one for a television show called Ugly Betty.

Denise and her counselor discussed reasons for why magazines used impossibly thin women as models. Denise noted that if advertisers made being beautiful easy, no one would buy anything. This homework assignment helps Denise reflect upon and consider whether the mes- sages she receives are realistic, and give context to their purpose.

Another aspect of Narrative Therapy is the search for unique out- comes (Speedy, 2000). That is, the client works toward changing the story about the problem, or more particularly, about herself. Denise found her unique outcome by going shopping with a few friends. Denise rarely shopped for clothes, and did not shop with anyone other than her mother. On this shopping trip, Denise and two girl friends from her col- lege went to the mall and shopped for jeans, skirts, shoes, and other items. Denise felt afraid of undressing but was also aware of why she felt afraid. Because she did not want to be a "magazine victim," as she described it, she was willing to try on clothes that exposed her thighs.

Although Denise did not buy new clothes, she did not experience the characteristic shame. Denise did not want to be defined by a magazine or feel badly about herself because she did not look just like the women in magazines. Through mapping the influence of Denise's story about herself, she was able to see the influence of advertisements and other media images on her self-concept. Her ability to externalize that story and examine the etiology of her feelings about her body helped her to not only see a different way to feel about the same body, but also led her to critically think about what societal messages she wanted to absorb.

CONCLUSION

The challenge to influence the advertisement industry so it no longer perpetuates limiting stereotypes is a formidable one. However, educa- tion, social pressure, and purchasing decisions can affect change. No doubt, advertising can have a negative impact on how women are per- ceived in this culture. Alternatively, advertisements have the power to carry more positive societal messages.

Jane C. Levy 85

People become socialized by the messages they receive. Bandura's theory (1977) speaks to the ways these rnessages influence the patterns people develop in life. Narrative Therapy, on the other hand, provides a means for people to re-examine these narratives, and rnedia literacy is one way they can be accessed and re-exatnined. Indeed, in revisiting nan-atives that limit a person's happiness, self-esteem, and relational development, harrnful perceptions can be placed in context and new possibilities for personal acceptance and increased connection emerge.

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RECEIVED: 06/18/07 REVISED: 07/20/07

ACCEPTED: 08/15/07

doi:10.1300/J456v02n04 07