Bias
Chapter 3
Culture and Gender
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Learning Objectives
By the end of the chapter you should be able to:
· Explain how culture allows large groups of people to live with one another
· Differentiate how independent and interdependent cultures define the self and affect cognition, emotion, andmotivation
· Describe the cultural dimensions of power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity versus femininity,and short-term versus long-term orientation
· Describe some possible sources of cultural differences
· Differentiate sex and gender, gender role, and gender stereotype
· Explain what gender differences researchers have found regarding for math ability and aggression
· Explain what gender differences researchers have found regarding acceptance of casual sex, desired numberof sexual partners, reasons for jealousy in a romantic relationship, and qualities desired in a romanticpartner and a possible explanation for this group of differences
Chapter Outline
3.1 Culture
· Independent Versus Interdependent Cultures
· Cultural Dimensions
· The Source of Cultural Differences
3.2 Gender
· Gender Differences: Source and Method
· Gender Differences: What Are They?
Chapter Summary
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The 7 billion people on planet Earth inhabit the approximate 57,500,000 square miles of land surface. Gathered into groups,they make up around 196 countries and speak approximately 6,800–6,900 languages, depending on the definition of countryand language. As groups of people have organized themselves, differentiations have developed. For instance, with some groupsan activity begins at a specific time, while for others the starting time is more fluid and the activities begin whenever everyonearrives. Such things as views of time are developed by people, but some differences are inborn; for instance, roughly half of theworld population is male and half is female. In this chapter we explore some ways in which people are differentiated from oneanother on a large scale, first investigating cultural differences and then looking at possible gender differences.
3.1 Culture
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Many Western stories, like The Adventures ofHuckleberry Finn, center on an independentindividual.
One challenge for people living in large social groups such as extended families, clans,tribes, states, and nations is organization. The human brain with all its complexity andability to organize enables large social groups to live together with some degree ofharmony (Adolphs, 2009; Dunbar, 1998). Groups must be able to get along and nothurt one another, to feed and shelter themselves, and to take care of offspring. Culture—shared beliefs, attitudes, values, and norms for behavior—allows large groups tomaintain social order and avoid chaos by developing and passing down standard waysof living together. For example, when everyone in a culture shares an understanding ofexpected and appropriate greetings, everyone knows what to do when they meetfriends and strangers. By having standard rules for shared and private space, groupsknow where to keep resources, engage in intimate acts, or deal with bodily needs.
Culture is visible in a variety of ways and also influences the structure of our brains.How people engage in daily interactions within a culture influences the way the brainis built (Kitayama & Park, 2010). As people meet and collaborate with one another,they learn how to engage in rewarding interactions and how to avoid unpleasant orpotentially dangerous interactions. This learning strengthens neural pathways,influencing future meetings as well as the general way in which the individualapproaches the world. Each of our brains is uniquely qualified to engage in cultureand specifically tuned to our own culture.
Independent Versus Interdependent Cultures
Our sense of self is developed and continues to change over our lifetimes (Greve,Rothermund, & Wentura, 2005). Culture has a large impact on the development of ourself-concepts. Cultures vary greatly in many ways, one large difference being the waycultures view the self and connections with others. In independent cultures (orindividualistic), people are viewed as separate, unique individuals whose qualities are independent of their social connections. In interdependent cultures (or collectivistic), people are viewed as enmeshed within social connections such that the person cannot bedescribed adequately without social context and connections (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Some of the differences between these culturesare summarized in Table 3.1.
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Table 3.1: Characteristics of independent and interdependent cultures |
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Independent/Individualistic |
Interdependent/Collectivistic |
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Tend tobe foundin . . . |
United States, Western Europe |
Asia (e.g., Japan, Korea, China), Central and SouthAmerica |
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The self isseen as . .. |
unique, not dependent on social context |
flexible, varies with context |
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Internalattributesare . . . |
expressed through interactions withothers; others allow for an expression ofinternal attributes |
meaningful and complete only in interactionswith others |
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Behavioris . . . |
largely determined by the self and one'sinternal attributes |
a result of the situation and social roles; internalattributes of the self are not powerful inregulating behavior |
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When individuals from an interdependent culture are asked to write down statements in response to the question "Who am I?" they tendto include more role-specific and concrete information (Cousins, 1989). For example, a Korean student might write that she is silly whenwith friends. People from independent cultures respond with more trait or attribute characterizations. An American might write that he isartistic. Notice how the individual from an interdependent culture included context (with friends) when describing herself, but the personfrom an independent culture did not. This is not to say that people in an independent culture never take into account the context or referto themselves in relation to others or that people in an interdependent culture never describe themselves according to traits; individualsfrom each culture are simply more likely to use each description (Kashima, Koval, & Kashima, 2011).
Test Yourself
Click on each question below to reveal the answer.
Figure 3.1: Conceptual representations of the self
Researchers have discovered that participants withindependent cultures (like North Americans) tend to focusmore on the self, while those with interdependent cultures(like Chinese) tend to focus more on relationships.
From Markus, H. R., & Kitayama, S. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications forcognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224–253. doi:10.1037/0033-295X.98.2.224 Copyright © 1991 by the American PsychologicalAssociation. Reprinted with permission.
Different cultural constructions of the self will impact people's reactions to the environment. For instance, individuals in interdependentcultures pay much more attention to the setting or the surroundings in all sorts of circumstances, while those from independent culturesfocus on the main object or person, largely ignoring the setting. In a study that illustrates this difference, participants were asked towatch an animated scene of fish, seaweed, and other aquatic objects. Both the American (independent culture) and Japanese(interdependent culture) participants noted the main fish, but the Japanese participants were much more likely to also make statementsabout the environment ("there was a pond"). Their judgments in later tasks were affected if the background was changed, though thebackground change made no difference for the American participants (Nisbett, Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, 2001).
This tendency also plays out in relationships and view of self. Because independent cultures focus on the unique self, people have a largeand elaborate body of knowledge about the self and a less elaborate body of knowledge about others (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). On theother hand, interdependent cultures focus more on relationships—something evidenced in the way categories are formed (see Figure 3.1).When a group of Chinese children were asked to group cards containing pictures, they put women and babies into one category becauseof their relationship. American children tended to put the adults together because of shared category membership (i.e., they were bothadults) (Chiu, 1972).
The expression of emotions also differs depending on culture. Individuals in interdependent cultures tend to express more other-focusedemotions, emotions like shame or sympathy that are centered on other people (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). Ego-focused emotions, orthose emotions that express a person's attributes and are centered on the individual, are more often expressed by those in independentcultures. Anger and pride are ego-focused emotions. Expressing an emotion like anger is considered childish in interdependent culturesbut is more accepted in independent cultures because these emotions come out of and help distinguish the self. For example, in order forpeople to express anger, they must feel some sort of injury or offense to the self, and they must also believe that it is all right for them toexpress that injury to the self.
In other studies on emotions, culture researchers found that independent cultures tend to focus more on positive feelings than negativefeelings. Because independent cultures view emotions as an expression of the self, it makes sense that people would encourage theirpositive emotions and suppress or avoid negative emotions. Emotions as expressions of the self are less important in interdependentcultures since the self is more clearly defined by others. Emotions, positive or negative, therefore receive less attention (Kitayama,Markus, & Kurokawa, 2000). People in independent cultures generally report feeling emotions longer and more intensely than those frominterdependent cultures (Mastumoto, Kudoh, Scherer, & Wallbott, 1988). For interdependent cultures such as Japan, such expressionsdisrupt social relationships and the harmony in the group, so they are less acceptable than interpersonally engaged emotions (e.g.,friendly feelings) (Kitayama, Markus, & Kurokawa, 2000). For this reason, the Japanese have a series of emotions that involve relying onothers that do not have counterparts in English. For example, amae refers to a dependence on others, feeling or hoping to feel cared forby someone (Markus & Kitayama, 1991).
Social Psychology in Depth: Personal Space
Each person on our planet requires a certain amount of space. The space needed to feel comfortable when interacting withothers varies from culture to culture. Personal space is the bubble of space around an individual over which a person feelssome kind of ownership. Because of this sense of ownership, individuals feel a sense of discomfort when their personalspace is violated by someone being too close physically. If someone invades our space, we do not get more comfortable overthe short term; our high level of discomfort remains (Hayduk, 1981). To prevent such invasions, we often erect barrierssuch as placing personal objects in a space near to us (Fisher & Byrne, 1975). When someone does invade our space, wemay do nothing, move personal belongings away from them, leave, say something to the invader, or strike up a conversation(Skolnick, Frasier, & Hadar, 1977).
Some space universals exist. Across cultures all people have a personal space. We begin to develop our sense of personalspace around 3 years old, and it continues to enlarge until about age 21 (Hayduk, 1983).When strangers encounter oneanother, they leave space between them, though how that space is used will vary depending on situational factors (Høgh-Olesen, 2008; Pedersen & Heaston, 1972; Mazur, 1977).
In some cultures personal space is small. Such cultures are often called contact cultures and include Southern Europeancountries, Latin American countries, and Arabian countries. Cultures with larger personal space are called no contactcultures. No contact cultures can be found in the countries of Northern Europe and North America (Remland, Jones, &Brinkman, 1995). Even greater distance for interacting dyads can be found in Asian cultures such as Japan (Beaulieu, 2004;Sussman & Rosenfeld, 1982).
Gender differences also exist for personal space. Women generally expect less personal space than men, particularly wheninteracting with other women (Skolnick, Frasier, & Hadar, 1977; Sussman & Rosenfeld, 1982). When space is invaded andthey are touched with no justification for the contact, men react negatively to the intrusion. Women, on average, do notreact negatively (Sussman & Rosenfeld, 1978).
Researchers have found physiological reactions to space invasion. When seated close to one another on a train, peopleshowed an increase in stress hormones (Evans & Wener, 2007). Within the brain the amygdala seems to be important in thereaction to invasions of personal space. The amygdala is part of the brain's limbic system and plays a role in emotionalreactions, particularly aggression and fear. A patient with severe damage to her amygdala felt no discomfort even whenstanding nose-to-nose with another person (Kennedy, Gläscher, Tyszka, & Adolphs, 2009).
The tendency toward contextualization can create problems for counterfactual thinking, "what-if" types of thinking, or abstract reasoning.When participants in Taiwan and Hong Kong were asked to decide which parenting technique was most appropriate based on aparagraph explaining why a particular technique would be most helpful, many of them chose incorrectly. Their responses were not due toa lack of intelligence but rather a reluctance to answer something in a way that went against their own experience. They did not want tosuggest parenting behavior to others that they believed would not work. American participants may have disagreed with the conclusionof the paragraph based on their own experiences, but they were willing to answer in the abstract and choose the option suggested by theparagraph (Bloom, 1981; Markus & Kitayama, 1991).
Motivations differ for those from different cultures. In independent cultures, motives are internal and individual. Examples of motivesmight include achievement, self-actualization, or enhancing self-esteem. A student in an independent culture may enter a writing contestwith the goal of showing how great a writer he is and to receive praise for his abilities. Motives for those in interdependent cultures, onthe other hand, restrain the self and focus on others. These motives might include affiliation, nurturance, or deference (i.e., respect orsubmission) (Markus & Kitayama, 1991). A student in an interdependent culture may join the chess club primarily as a way of gainingfriends or honoring a teacher who asked her to join, rather than showing her abilities in competitions. When a student in interdependentcultures engages in actions because of a need for achievement, that achievement is not focused on achieving for the self but ratherachieving to bring honor or meet expectations of one's in-group (Yang, 1982). Motivations for actions in the two cultures certainly dooverlap, but in each type of culture, each type of motive will be more dominant.
A motivation for people in Western (independent) cultures is not to fit in but to show their own traits, preferably in a favorable light.People from Western cultures take pride in their positive attributes to a greater degree than they are remorseful about their negativeattributes. A great basketball player may take great pride in that attribute and be motivated to work to improve basketball skills evenmore. A lack of cooking skills probably will not bother him or her, so that person will not focus time and energy on improving thoseskills. For interdependent cultures, there is less of a discrepancy between ratings of positive and negative attributes, as well as lessemphasis on positive attributes. Individuals from interdependent cultures also desire to improve their negative attributes rather thantheir positive attributes (Lo, Helwig, & Chen, 2011).
Test Yourself
For each of the following, decide whether you'd be more likely to see it in an independent or an interdependent culture.Click on each phrase below to reveal the answer.
· Accurate assessment of control in a situation
· Categorization based on relationships between objects
· Sympathy
· Achievement to better one's own situation
Cultural Dimensions
There is more than one dimension of cultural differences. Hofstede (2001) explored cultural variability beyond differences in independentand interdependent cultures by surveying thousands of employees at multinational corporations, covering 72 different countries andmany different languages. His early work was with the large, multinational company IBM, but he found similar results within particularcultures when he surveyed people in other organizations. To determine how cultures differ, he examined individualism versus collectivism(independent and interdependent), but also looked at power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity versus femininity, and long-termversus short-term orientation (see Figure 3.2).
Figure 3.2: Hofstede's cultural dimensions
Hofstede surveyed various countries and discovered differing ranges between cultures on dimensions such asmasculinity, long-term orientation, individualism, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance.
Based on Hofstede, G. H. (2001). Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.).Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Power Distance
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Employees from large power distance countries might be lesslikely to openly disagree with business executives.
Power distance has to do with the acceptance and promotion of adistance between those at different levels of power. In some countries,people are differentiated based on their position in a hierarchy, and rightsand benefits come with positions of power that are not afforded to thoselower on the hierarchy. Japan, for instance, has a large power distance. Astrong respect for the hierarchy is evident in the Japanese language. Theway individuals refer to themselves, for instance, changes depending onwhether they are talking to a peer or to someone with power over them,like a teacher or a boss (Hamamura & Heine, 2008). Other countries highin power distance include Malaysia, Guatemala, and Panama.
In cultures with low power distance, such as Israel, Denmark, Austria,New Zealand, Canada, and the United States, rules and rituals thatmaintain status and power differences are rarer. Often the people withinthese cultures demand justification for inequality and work to equalizepower. In countries with lower power distance, an employee might makesuggestions or disagree with the supervisor. Rituals, like having the bosssit at the head of the table, may not be as rigidly adhered to, and leadersmay use different strategies and styles to influence their workers(Jackson, Meyer, & Wang, 2013; Pasa, 2000). Cultures with a lower powerdistance, as well as more independent cultures, also tend to show moreinnovative ideas and products (Rinne, Steel, & Fairweather, 2012).
Uncertainty Avoidance
Different cultures have different ways of dealing with the uncertainties of life. Some cultures prescribe specific behaviors in specificsituations as a way to avoid life's uncertainties. In many situations, new, different, or unorthodox ideas are unwelcome and viewed aspotentially dangerous. In Guatemala, for example, appropriate rituals for greeting and saying good-bye are expected, and people havefairly rigid rules for acceptable behavior in various social situations. Attempts to change these rituals or disregard them will lead tonegative interactions and loss of trust. Countries high in uncertainty avoidance include Greece, Guatemala, Uruguay, Portugal, Belgium,and Japan.
Other cultures are more relaxed when it comes to ambiguity, with few rules or rituals. Rather than being rigid, these cultures tend to beflexible and easygoing. In Jamaica, for instance, greetings may be quite informal, and few rituals are followed in everyday interactions. Incultures like Jamaica, wearing unusual clothing or engaging in non-normative behavior will have few social consequences. Countries lowin uncertainty avoidance are Singapore, Sweden, Jamaica, and Denmark.
Masculinity Versus Femininity
Masculine cultures are those in which men and women are expected to exhibit different qualities—men are expected to be assertive, andwomen are expected to be tender and caring. Some of the most masculine countries in the world are Japan, Austria, Venezuela, Italy, andSwitzerland. In masculine cultures, men are socialized to be tough and focused on success, while women are to be modest. These culturesseek to foster and maintain differences between men and women through different norms for men/boys and women/girls (e.g., boysdon't cry), and by teaching men and women different things (e.g., women learn to cook). Masculine cultures tend to be more driven byqualities that are more often associated with men, such as achievement and success.
Feminine cultures are those where both men and women are socialized to be modest and tender (Hofstede, 2000). Feminine cultures tendto focus more on caring for their citizens and overall quality of life, investing more in human development programs (Rodrigues &Blumberg, 2000). For such cultures, some success may need to be sacrificed for the good of the people, rather than the people sacrificingto help the society succeed as would be done in a more masculine culture (van den Bos et al., 2010). Countries with more of a feminineculture include Sweden, Norway, the Netherlands, Denmark, and Costa Rica. The United States is closer to the masculine than feminineend of the spectrum but has elements of both.
Long-Term Versus Short-Term Orientation
Some cultures encourage delay of gratification and forward-thinking. These cultures are considered to have a long-term orientation andare focused on preparing for future events through saving and persistence in the present. For example, individuals in these culturesshould show a higher savings rate and lower debt, since current wants or needs will receive lower priority than having resources for thefuture. Asian cultures often have a long-term orientation, with Japan, China, and Taiwan having the highest prevalence of this view.
Other cultures with a short-term orientation are more focused on the present and past. In these cultures, there is a greater emphasis onquick results, spending now instead of saving for the future, as well as a respect for past traditions. Cultures with short-term orientationinclude Ghana, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Spain, Philippines, Spain, Canada, and the United States. One's orientation also influences theculture's view of truth. For those with more of a short-term orientation, truth is absolute whereas with a long-term orientation, truth ismore dependent on the situation (Hofstede, 1993).
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The Source of Cultural Differences
Where do these cultural differences originate? Pointing to just one source is difficult because such differences arise from many places.One theory about the source of differences points to exploration of new frontiers. For example, when we compare the culture of thosewho migrated to new territories to those cultures who stayed put, differences in focus on the individual emerge. European Americans inthe United States tend to be more individualistic than Europeans (Kitayama, Park, Sevincer, Karasawa, & Uskul, 2009). Greaterindividualism is also found within Japan among those who migrated from their original homes to new islands (Kitayama, Duffy, & Uchida,2007). Researchers should find Spanish-speaking people in Latin America and Portuguese-speaking people in Brazil versus theircounterparts in Spain or Portugal to be more individualistic (Kashima et al., 2011).
Cultural Context for our Behavior
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Culture and its influence on our behavior.
Critical Thinking Questions
· Why is it so important to consider culturalcontext?
· What is an example of how culture is "dynamic" asopposed to "monolithic"?
Physical environment is also a factor in defining culture. Greater independenceis needed in parts of the world where making a living requires constantadjustment and movement. Among nomadic people and those who herd animals,we tend to find more independent cultures. Greater interdependence tends todevelop when people are living in close geographic proximity and have lowgeographic mobility, such as those found in agriculturally based communities(Kitayama & Uskul, 2011). Additional differences are found when agriculturalpractices that require vigilance and hard work, such as those needed to growrice, lead to a different approach to life than agricultural practices that rely onfactors like the weather that are outside one's control, such as those needed togrow wheat and other grains (Nisbett, 2003). Cultures with historic agriculturalpractices that require attention and diligent labor tend to see achievement asbased on those factors. Cultures with historic agricultural practices that rely onwishes and prayers tend to view achievement as at least partially outside oftheir control.
Cultures are not static; they are constantly changing, affected by history,economics, and changes in the natural world. Some of the current differences incultures come from events in history (Kitayama, Conway, Pietromanaco, Park, &Plaut, 2010). Japan, for example, made a drastic change in its politicalorganization after World War II, moving from an empire to a democracy(Kashima, Koval, & Kashima, 2011). Yet on an individual level, culture is passeddown from generation to generation and is changed by each generation.
A culture begins to exhibit cultural values with its children early on. For example, children in independent cultures tend to sleep in theirown beds in their own rooms rather than co-sleeping, or sleeping in the same room or same bed as another family member (Shweder,Jensen & Goldstein, 1995). Co-sleeping is more common in interdependent cultures such as China (Huang, Wang, Zhang, Liu, 2010).Parents in the United States tend to direct their baby's attention to objects in the world, while parents in Japan direct their baby'sattention to themselves or other people (Rothbaum, Weisz, Pott, Miyake, & Morelli, 2000). In these and hundreds of other ways, childrenlearn how to exist within their own culture and carry those patterns of behavior and perception into adulthood.
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Parents begin instilling different cultural values in their children during infancy.
Because culturally appropriate responses to situations are learned early and feel natural, visiting or living in a place with a differentculture creates culture shock. Culture shock is the result of a disparity between what feels natural or what one expects in a situation andthe demands of that situation (Kitayama, Markus, Matsumoto, & Norasakkunkit, 1997). The larger the difference between one's homecountry and the culture of the country one visits, the greater the culture shock (Zeitlin, 1996). Eating with one's fingers at a formaloccasion may feel wrong to an American but might be expected from a guest at a wedding in India. People who have more knowledgeabout cultural differences tend to encounter less culture shock, perhaps because the differences between cultures are not as surprising(Chen, Lin, & Sawangpattanakul, 2012). Although eating with a fork may always feel unnatural to someone who grew up eating withfingers, knowing that utensils are required will not come as a shock to a more culturally knowledgeable person. Awareness of cultureshock can also help someone living or traveling in a new culture to identify what they are feeling and work through it (Zapf, 1991).
It is also important to remember that even though people are different across cultures, there are also a great number of differencesbetween people within a culture. If you meet someone from a culture that is different from your own, you might use the differencesbetween cultures described in this chapter as a starting point in learning about that person; however, it is important to remember thatthese descriptions may not all be present in that individual.
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3.2 Gender
Besides culture, another potential source of difference between people is their sex. Although the words sex and gender are often usedinterchangeably, most psychologists differentiate between the two terms. Sex refers to biological sex, based on chromosomes or genitalia. Gender, on the other hand, refers to differences between men and women that are based in culture, or to differences between men andwomen whose causality has not been established. Gender is socially constructed; sex is biologically based (Gentile, 1993; Unger &Crawford, 1993). Psychologists have investigated many potential differences between men and women and the source of those differences.
Gender Differences: Source and Method
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Gender roles are often prescribed in early childhood. A young girlmight be given a doll to care for, while a young boy might beencouraged to manage a wooden train track.
Biology is a major source of difference between men and women. Mostmen and women have different sex chromosomes, different hormonelevels, different genitalia, and different reproductive capabilities. If biologyis the basis for differences between men and women, we should see suchdifferences among almost all men and women in all cultures and overhistory. One theory that has its basis in the biological differences betweenmen and women, particularly in their reproductive capacities, isevolutionary theory. Evolutionary theory will be described in more detailin the next section.
Another potential source of difference between men and women is theenvironment. A social group may prescribe particular behaviors asappropriate for men and a different set of behaviors for women. Genderroles are cultural or group-based norms for appropriate behaviors andactivities for men and women. For example, the female gender role incertain cultures and groups may include being nurturing and caring forothers. A gender stereotype is a set of beliefs about what individuals of acertain gender are and should do and be. A gender stereotype might bethat only women should be nurses. If the environment is the cause ofdifferences between men and women, we should find somewhat different gender roles in different cultures and at different periods.
Test Yourself
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Gender Differences: What Are They?
One stereotype about women is that they are not as good at math as men (Nosek et al., 2009). Is there truth to this stereotype? In recentmeta-analyses, researchers found no difference between the mathematical ability of boys/men and girls/women (Lindberg, Hyde,Petersen, & Linn, 2010). In direct opposition to this stereotype, girls earn better grades than boys in mathematics in elementary and highschool (Kenney-Benson, Pomerantz, Ryan, & Patrick, 2006). Neither gender is favored in general mathematics ability in elementary andmiddle school, but researchers have found slight preference for men in complex problem solving in high school and college (Lindberg etal., 2010). In the past, girls were less likely to take advanced mathematics courses and are still somewhat less likely to take physicscourses, so the discrepancy in complex problem solving may be due to lack of exposure and training in complex problem solving ratherthan something inherent in the female sex.
In a study assessing nine predictors of mathematics performance at age 10, Melhuish and colleagues (2008) found that the bestpredictors were the mother's education, quality of the home learning environment, and the effectiveness of the elementary school—notgender. Other predictors were birth weight, father's education, family income, socioeconomic status, and preschool effectiveness. Whilegender gaps in math achievement do exist in different nations around the world, these gaps tend to occur when there are differences inschool enrollment, participation of women in science and technology fields, and participation of women in roles of governmentalleadership (Else-Quest, Hyde, & Linn, 2010). Given all of these findings, we can fairly safely conclude that, with opportunities andencouragement, women and girls are just as capable in mathematics as men and boys.
Aggression is another variable where gender stereotypes are prevalent. In a meta-analysis of aggression, researchers find that men tendto be more aggressive than women, though the effect size is small (Bettencourt & Miller, 1996; Eagly & Steffen, 1986). In instances ofaggression without provocation, men are more aggressive than women. But when a situation includes provocation, this difference largelydisappears (Bettencourt & Miller, 1996). Provocation might include being insulted or being harmed by another person. When showingaggression, men and women have different responses. Women are more likely to aggress if they can use verbal aggression rather thanphysical aggression, and are also more likely to aggress if it is toward another woman rather than a man. Men also aggress more towardother men (Bettencourt & Miller, 1996). Because men and women are equally aggressive when provoked, some researchers havesuggested that differences are largely based in social roles (Richardson & Hammock, 2007). Men are aggressive generally because theirmasculine social role calls for it, and women are not aggressive generally because their social role prohibits it. If, however, there is reasonfor aggression, both men and women are willing to show it.
On the other end of the spectrum, is there a difference between men and women in levels of cooperation? As with aggression, there isessentially no difference between the general cooperativeness of men and women (Balliet, Li, Macfarlan, & Van Vugt, 2011). There aresome differences in the context in which men and women are cooperative. Men tend to cooperate more when they are working withother men. Women cooperate more in groups that include both men and women.
Age and Gender Differences in TeenDating
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Gender differences impact the nature of datingviolence.
Critical Thinking Questions
· Who perpetrates more acts of violence in theirteen years, girls or boys?
· Why does age matter?
Men and women are different in their tendencies to forgive. Men are less likelyto forgive than women. In a meta-analysis the effect size for this difference wassmall (Miller, Worthington, & McDaniel, 2008). A large difference between menand women was found for vengeance. Men had a greater desire for vengeancethan women. The results of studies in other cultures suggest that this desire forvengeance is one encouraged by culture. In some cultures there are nodifferences in vengeance between men and women (Kadiangandu, Mullet, &Vinsonneau, 2001).
One possible explanation for gender differences is found in the social rolesexhibited in interdependent and independent cultures. For interdependentcultures, behaviors associated with gender roles are attributed to the role ratherthan the person. A woman's nurturing nature may not be somethingcharacteristic of herself but rather a requirement of her role as mother. Inindependent cultures, on the other hand, social roles have less power, so similarnurturing behaviors are believed to come out of an aspect of the self rather thanthe social role (Costa, Terracciano, & McCrae, 2001). Another possibleexplanation is that inherent differences between men and women are difficult tosee in cultures where social roles are prescribed. These inherent differences aremore obvious only in more egalitarian cultures where men and women have thefreedom to express what comes naturally to them—the personalitycharacteristics they have based on biological endowment rather than based insocial roles (Schmitt, Realo, Voracek, & Allik, 2008). More research is needed totease out the source of these findings.
Across cultures, men and women also differ in their acceptance of casual sex, desired number of sexual partners, desired qualities ofmates, and source of jealousy in intimate relationships. In general, men are more accepting of casual sex (Oliver & Hyde, 1993; Petersen &Hyde, 2010). Men prefer more sexual partners than women, particularly if they are asked to estimate how many partners they woulddesire if there were no social or health risks and no limitations in their ability to find willing women. With no risks or limitations, menrespond that their ideal number of sexual partners during their lifetime is around 12.9, while women report an ideal number of 4.9.However, when viewed from a different angle, researchers found that 47% of the women had an interest in more than one partnercompared to 76% of the men (Fenigstein & Preston, 2007). Another difference between men and women is that men place moreemphasis on the physical attractiveness of a romantic partner (Feingold, 1990). Women tend to be pickier when choosing potentialromantic partners and put more focus on status and potential to invest in children (Brase, 2006; Buss, 1989, 1995).
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Evolutionary psychologists believe that biologicalfactors, like paternity uncertainty and maternalinvestment, have shaped gender differences in mateselection.
Evolutionary psychologist David Buss points to differences in adaptive challengesfaced by men and women in evolutionary history as the cause of these differences.Because of biological differences, reproduction requires different things. A man'sgenes can potentially be passed on by having sex one time with a fertile woman. Awoman's genes, however, can only be passed on if she has sex, gets pregnant, invests 9months in the pregnancy, has a successful birth, and feeds and cares for the child untilit can make it on its own. Women, then, have an exponentially larger investment ineach offspring than men do. Given this difference, the major tasks of men in passingdown their genes are to identify fertile women and convince them to have sex.
Unlike women, men do not necessarily know if an offspring of someone they had sexwith is their own—a phenomenon Buss calls paternity uncertainty. There are two,non-mutually exclusive strategies to deal with this dilemma. A man can attempt toprotect the woman he had had sex with from other men, thereby assuring that anyoffspring she produces are his. Because his contribution to future children can be assmall as a single act of sex, the other strategy a man could adopt is to attempt to havesex with as many women as possible, so even if one woman ends up not having hisbaby, another might. Given her large investment in each offspring she produces, themajor tasks of a woman, on the other hand, is to identify a man who is willing andable to invest in her and her offspring and protect herself from getting pregnant froma man who will not invest.
The gender differences in acceptance of casual sex, attractive qualities in the oppositesex, and feelings about different types of infidelity are generally found in all culturesaround the world. Given this cross-cultural consistency, it is unlikely that social rolesare the basis of these differences. Evolutionary psychologist David Buss points todifferences in adaptive challenges faced by men and women in evolutionary history asthe cause of gender difference. Evolutionary theory proposes that characteristics oforganisms that help them survive and reproduce in a particular environment will allow the genes of those organisms to be passed on.Organisms that do not have those advantages will not survive and, therefore, those genes will not continue into the future. Withevolutionary theory, we would expect men who have the skills to provide for a woman to be more successful. In a hunter-gatherer society,such as that in which our ancestors lived, a man's physical attributes, such as his ability to throw a spear quickly and accurately, wouldmake him more successful.
Based on their reproductive challenges, it makes sense that women would be more picky when choosing mates. Women need to identifymen who have the resources to invest, that is, those of higher status and who are willing to invest in children. Evolutionary theory alsoattributes women's desire for fewer sexual partners and tendency to be more upset by emotional infidelity to her desire to protect herchildren. Emotional infidelity could mean the man in her life would leave and invest in someone else, leaving her with fewer resources tocare for her children. Evolutionarily speaking, men's desire for more attractive partners may be rooted in the need for men to identifyfertile women. Similarly, men's need to identify their children as their own explains why men are more upset when their romanticpartners have sex with another person.
Evolutionary theory may not be the only way to explain cross-cultural similarities in gender differences. There is also the social structuraltheory. According to Alice Eagly and Wendy Wood (1999), some basic biological differences led, historically, to a difference in thestructure of societies. Larger body size and strength led men to engage in more physical activities. The physical demands of pregnancyand lactation led women to engage in more home-based pursuits that could be interrupted by demands of small children. Because menand women have the same biologically based capabilities across cultures, these societies tended to organize themselves in similar ways.Men tended to specialize in activities like hunting or herding that brought greater resources, power, and status. Women could not engagein those activities and therefore were more likely to be dependent and specialize in nurturing activities. According to the social structuraltheory, the majority of differences between men and women are based in the social structure—if the social structure is changed, so toowill the differences between men and women. Indeed, in countries with greater gender equality, the social status of the man is not asimportant to women as in countries with less gender equality. Men are less interested in the domestic skills of women in more egalitariancountries.
Overall, men and women are more alike than different. Some differences, particularly those that are common in most cultures, canreasonably be attributed to different challenges in evolutionary history but might also be based in a society's social structure. Differencesthat vary from culture to culture, such as those in math performance, are better explained as due to social factors such as gender normswithin a culture.
Test Yourself
Click on each statement below to reveal the answer.
· Name two variables that meta-analyses have found are not appreciably different for men and women.
· Name three variables where differences between men and women have been found.
Conclusion
Chapter Summary
Culture
Cultures can be divided into those that emphasize independence of the self from others, such as those found in the United States andWestern Europe, and those that focus on context and social roles as important, such as those found in Asia and Central and SouthAmerica. These independent and interdependent constructions of self affect how people think, feel, and what motivates them. Culturesdiffer in terms of power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity versus femininity, and short-term orientation versus long-termorientation.
Gender
Gender differences may originate in biological differences between men and women, or may arise from different expectations for men andwomen in different cultures or groups, or a combination of the two. Few differences exist in men and women, such as mathematicalability and aggression with provocation. Differences that do exist can often be traced to differences within cultures' social roles.Evolutionary theory helps explain differences in men's and women's acceptance of casual sex, desired number of sexual partners, desiredqualities in a mate, and reasons for jealousy. Some of these differences can also be explained by the ways societies tend to build socialstructures to address biological differences.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. What are some advantages of living in an independent culture? What are some advantages of living in an interdependent culture?
2. If cognition, emotion, and motivation are different in independent and interdependent cultures, what else about people might bedifferent?
3. The chapter discusses the effect of independent and interdependent cultures on sense of self. How might Hofstede's culturaldimensions influence a person's sense of self?
4. What other gender differences might exist? Do you think these differences are based in biology or have been developed because ofsocial factors?
5. At times, evolutionary explanations for behavior make people uncomfortable because someone might claim these differences arebased in evolutionary history and cannot be changed or controlled by the individual. Is such a claim legitimate? How would yourespond to someone who made that argument?
Key Terms
Click on each key term to reveal the definition.