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Chapter 4

Social Policy From a Global Perspective

Robin Sakina Mama

Social workers speak to the right of self-determination, embracing difference and

acceptance of others. As you read this chapter, consider if this is truly possible

to uphold, or do we only subscribe to such positions of openness, acceptance,

and tolerance when they benefit our status?

Introduction

The environmentalist slogan “Think globally, act locally” is becoming a

central refrain in the social work community. Throughout most regions of

the country, the demographic patterns are significantly shifting and creat-

ing growing, diverse communities. The inscription on the Statue of Liberty,

“Give me your tired, your poor, Your huddled masses yearning to breathe

free,” provides hope and portends that a country with openness and accep-

tance based on justice and fairness awaits all people. Yet, we have seen

that is not necessarily the case following the horrific terrorist attacks of

9/11. Now, more than any other time in American history, we must have

a broad understanding of the many cultures, their norms, values, mores,

and folkways, and how these are translated in public policy. The United

Nations provides a forum for the world’s nation-states to meet and grapple

with global matters. The UN Declaration of Human Rights and many other

similar declarations provide worldwide statements on how we treat others.

But is this right? Who is to say that one country’s beliefs or those of a group

of nation-states are more correct than another’s?

Social workers are challenged every day to consider the global and

international aspects of their practice. Many social workers now work with

immigrants, refugees, and survivors of torture and trauma from other parts

of the globe. A client’s residence status can help or hinder his or her treat-

ment or access to service. Families are often dealing with adjustments to

living in the United States, while their relatives are struggling in another

Colby, I. C., Dulmus, C. N., Sowers, K. M., & Sowers, K. M. (2013). Social work and social policy : Advancing the principles of economic and social justice. John Wiley & Sons, Incorporated. Created from liberty on 2022-01-28 03:59:20.

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82 Social Work and Social Policy

country. Detention centers that house new asylees or refugees have become

a permanent part of our urban landscape.

International social work is not a new idea or a new field of practice.

Many social work professionals have been interested in understanding the

international dimensions of social work practice since social work gained

professional status (Findlay & McCormack, 2005). Social workers’ involve-

ment in international collaboration began after World War I, as evidenced

by the establishment of several international organizations, such as the

International Federation of Social Work and the International Association

of Schools of Social Work (Healy, 2001). This involvement increased after

World War II, as social workers became involved with rebuilding efforts

after the War and with the United Nations. This involvement waxed and

waned over the years, but it is now moving to the forefront as social

workers realize that the idea that we work only within the boundaries of

our own nation-states is no longer true. Influences beyond our borders

are increasingly acknowledged as having a direct influence on local and

national issues. The process underlying these changes is globalization

(Findlay & McCormack, 2005).

Globalization

It is not possible to discuss global social policy without first discussing

globalization. Globalization has a complex definition, which social scien-

tists have been researching for several years (Guillén, 2001). Most agree

that globalization is a process (or set of processes) (Hay, 2006) that encom-

pass economic, political, and sociocultural (Guttal, 2007)dimensions. Other

social scientists have defined globalization in a more detailed way so that

it might be quantified empirically. For example, “‘globalization is a process

(or set of processes) that embodies a transformation in the spatial organ-

isation of social relations and transactions, generating transcontinental or

inter-regional flows and networks of activity, interaction and power’” (Held,

as quoted in Hay, 2006, p. 3). The forces that drive globalization include

human migration, international trade, foreign policy, and the integration of

financial markets.

Economic Dimensions of Globalization

Economically, globalization has been characterized by trade liberalization,

increased international competition, and investment, all driven by an

increase in technological change. This increase and dependence on

technology should not be easily dismissed. Developments in technology,

both in computing and telecommunications, are changing the marketplace

and the workforce. “Global E-commerce surged from 130.2 billion in 1999

to nearly 1.640 billion in 2003” (Technology: Industrial Structure and Jobs,

www.globalization101.org, para 5). This surge in technology has created a

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Social Policy From a Global Perspective 83

knowledge economy, where access to information and the ability to use it

create productivity and prosperity. Mobile phone usage, for example, has

dramatically increased, with 302.9 million Americans subscribing to cell

phone plans in 2010. In many developing countries, people use cell phones

more than they use landline phones (www.globalization101.org).

The decline in the price to purchase a computer is a factor in spurring

the growth of computers in the developing world.

Computer and technological access varies widely from country to

country, however, with less-developed countries lagging severely behind.

These gaps in access are called digital divides , and they are beginning

to reinforce national and international gaps in living standards. Digital

divides occur in almost every country. The United States has made some

progress in closing its digital divides. From 1997 to 2005, U.S. adults with

Internet access increased from 24 to 79 percent. Broadband usage in the

United States has also increased, but rural households still lag behind

urban and suburban households by 14 to 16 percent (Digital Divides and

Privacy and Security Concerns, www.globalization101.org).

When these numbers are compared to international access to IT, the

number of people in the world who have Internet access is much lower, and

is very unequal around the world. One way to examine access is to look at

howmuch Internet access costs within one’s earned income. Inmany devel-

oping countries, the cost of Internet access is a much larger proportion of

income than it is in developed countries. For example, in the United States,

Internet access is less than 1 percent of average monthly income, whereas in

Nepal monthly Internet charges account for 270 percent of average monthly

income (Information Technology, www.globalization101.org).

The implications of this digital divide are significant, and a great deal

of work at the United Nations has gone into narrowing this divide globally.

The World Summit on the Information Society, held in Geneva in 2003 and

Tunis in 2005, delineated several concrete steps toward closing the digital

divide gap. First of these recommendations was on meeting basic needs, in

terms of health care, clean water, food, sanitation, and the like. Access to

information technology does little when one does not have food or clean

water (Fors, 2003). A second important recommendation is for infrastruc-

ture and the need to be creative when developing IT infrastructure. Wireless

technology is seen as one of the key ways to begin to provide access and

infrastructure in developing countries (Fors, 2003; Sehrt, 2003).

Political Dimensions of Globalization

Politically, globalization has been characterized by American power and the

influence of global institutions, such as the International Monetary Fund

(IMF). Many consider that the recent rise in the influence of globalization

has been brought about by the creation of new international organizations,

such as the World Bank (WB), the International Monetary Fund (IMF), and

the World Trade Organization (WTO) (Mama, 2004). These organizations

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84 Social Work and Social Policy

seem to have had a homogenizing effect on the social andwelfare policies of

many countries, and have created a “‘globalization of approaches’, whereby

a particular social, economic or political approach, judged beneficial by

one of the cross-national organizations, is seen as appropriate for many

countries regardless of cultural differences” (Findlay & McCormack, 2005,

p. 233). The processes that these international organizations require coun-

tries to follow in order to qualify for aid are seen as undermining the

capacity of countries to act autonomously, although there may be some

facilitation of democratic procedures (Walby, 2000). Politically, globaliza-

tion is not a uniform process; resources are often pitted against each other

in order to satisfy international markets. For example, there can be calls for

the state’s protection of human rights at the same time that the country’s

welfare state erodes (Walby, 2000).

Cultural Dimensions of Globalization

Culturally, globalization has been seen as resulting in dissemination of

global ideas and values (McClelland & St. John, 2006). Some authors have

suggested that the globalization of cultures and values has tended toward

homogeneity, with a process of McDonaldization of society occurring, along

with the processes of

Ikea-isation, CNN-isation, Nike-isation and Survivor-isation. The same brand of

clothing, the same home furniture, the same culinary taste, the same movies and

shows, and the same news, debates and images of reality are found all across the

globe. . . . In a short space of time we are now being nourished and nurtured by

the same sources of mediating symbols.

(Ahmadi, 2003, p. 16)

Ahmadi further suggests that this globalization of consciousness has the

consequence of the globalization of social problems, with an intensifica-

tion of individualism as its direct component (2003). The emphasis on

individualism is a frightening aspect of globalization to those cultures that

traditionally have focused on community and clan.

Cultural diversity and its role in globalization, especially of market

products, is coming under scrutiny. How are cultural products different

from other goods and services? The definitions of culture have evolved

over time, initially being referred to only as “arts and literature” (Chan-

Tibergian, 2006). After the World Conference on Cultural Policies in Mex-

ico City in 1982, culture was “regarded as the set of distinctive spiritual,

material, intellectual and emotional features of a society or social group,

and . . . encompasses, in addition to art and literature, lifestyles, ways of liv-

ing together, value systems, traditions and beliefs” (UNESCO, 2002, p. 18).

These are significant changes, as the Permanent Form on Indigenous Peo-

ples takes these meanings to new levels in their fight for patents for cultural

products or indigenous products.

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Social Policy From a Global Perspective 85

Globalization as Process

Globalization is not a new phenomenon. Several processes of globalization

have been operating simultaneously for many years—the globalization

of economics, politics, knowledge, and culture (Ahmadi, 2003). This

phenomenon, however, has challenged traditional social, political, and

economic structures. Globalization has been brought about by cost reduc-

tion in transportation and communication, in addition to the dissolution

of artificial barriers to trade, services, capital, and knowledge across

borders (Mama, 2004). Advancements in applied sciences, technology, and

communications are also factors that have made globalization possible.

(Guttal, 2007).

Many people would argue the benefits of globalization: open mar-

kets, positive competition, increased use of technology, and the potential

to enrich many people, especially the poor. Globalization has reduced the

sense of isolation felt by many in the developing world (but only those

with the access to technology). The expansion and increased use of tech-

nology has provided access to knowledge and information that before was

limited to only the wealthiest countries. Globalization has also increased

the amount of interaction among people of varied cultures. People from all

over the world meet together to a much greater extent than they had in the

past, and consequently begin to influence and understand each other. This

global culture has led to the creation of new identities and new forms of

literature, music, and art. There is now a very large global market for these

“creative industries,” which figure to be around US $800 billion per year

(Chan-Tibergian, 2006, p. 92).

There are just as many critics of globalization, however, as there are

proponents. Globalization has not succeeded in reducing poverty as was

promised; in fact, the gap between the haves and the have-nots in devel-

oping countries is widening. The Center for Economic and Policy Research

published in 2003 a score card on globalization from 1980 to 2000. Sev-

eral facts from this comparison with the time period 1960 to 1980 are

disturbing:

1. Life expectancy was reduced for four out of the five groups of countries

examined, which cannot be explained by the AIDS pandemic.

2. Reduction of infant mortality was slower.

3. Progress in education slowed. (Weisbrot, Baker, Kraev, & Chen, 2003)

Globalization has also not provided for stability in undeveloped

countries. Latin America and Asia are two good examples of how financial

crises affect the entire global economy. In addition, globalization has had

ill effects on the environment, with many poor countries using precious

environmental resources in the name of development. The sustainable

development movement is an attempt to preserve the environment while

still providing for development opportunities (Mama, 2004).

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86 Social Work and Social Policy

Globalization as It Relates to Policy

One often-used example of how globalization relates to social policy is to

examine the welfare state (Adelantado & Calderón, 2006; Brady, Beckgield,

& Seeleib-Kaiser, 2005; Genschel, 2004; Wilson, 2006). David Brady and his

colleagues suggest that four theories of the relationship between globaliza-

tion and the welfare state have emerged:

1. Globalization may cause an expansion of the welfare state.

2. Globalization may generate a crisis and retrenchment of the welfare

state.

3. Globalization may have curvilinear effects and contribute to welfare

state convergence.

4. Globalization may not affect the welfare state. (Brady et al., 2005,

p. 922)

Taking each point separately, in the first theory, globalization causes

an expansion of the welfare state because globalization triggers political

dynamics that result in generous welfare programs and corporatist labor

market institutions. Some studies that support this theory have shown that

trade openness significantly increases social welfare expenditures. This sup-

posedly comes about because social welfare expenditures must increase

with trade openness (Brady et al., 2005).

In the second theory, a crisis and retrenchment of the welfare state

occurs as states undergo neoliberal restructuring to foster flexibility and

competitiveness. The welfare state is reduced because of a need to be inter-

nationally competitive with a flexible labor force and austere fiscal policy

(Brady et al., 2005). For example, the United States, Great Britain, New

Zealand, Canada, and Australia have all adopted neoliberal approaches

to social policy, which have had a direct effect on welfare spending. The

neoliberal approach usually follows certain characteristics: tightened condi-

tions of eligibility, extension of means testing, transferring financial respon-

sibility to individuals, families, or employers, and a move away from simple

provision of benefits for the unemployed (Findlay & McCormack, 2005,

p. 233). In this case, globalization forces reductions in the welfare state

because of the need for a flexible labor force to remain internationally

competitive (Brady et al., 2005).

The third theory, globalization as convergence, contends that “glob-

alization originally triggers an expansion of the welfare state with eco-

nomic development. But at higher levels, globalization causes contractions

in mature, generous, already developed welfare states” (Brady et al., 2005,

p. 924). The curvilinear effects suggest that globalization forces a mean

level of welfare effort by both high and low spenders.

Finally, some scholars believe that globalization has an insignificant

effect, if any, on the welfare state. According to Brady, these skeptics can

also be classified into four categories: those who believe (1) that globaliza-

tion has a contingent effect in certain circumstances, (2) that welfare states

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Social Policy From a Global Perspective 87

reflect the “status quo” in affluent democracies, (3) that “politics as usual”

will drive the welfare state, and (4) that deindustrialization drives welfare

state expansion, not globalization (Brady et al., 2005).

Philipp Genschel (2004) offers one additional theory on globalization

and policy: that globalization is a consequence of the problems with the

welfare state, but then can also be part of the welfare state’s solution.

This revisionist theory holds that the problems of the welfare state are self-

inflicted, mostly a result of high taxes and deductions, which drain the

economy. The pace of economic growth is slowed. The interesting ques-

tion in this argument is “How does globalization help save the welfare

state?” Genschel (2004) suggests that revisionists believe that the inten-

sity of the feeling of crisis that comes from globalization will help sustain

the welfare state. Globalization forces policy makers to reevaluate and then

change policy. Revisionists also believe that as market integration deep-

ens with globalization, countries will specialize in sectors in which they

are competitive so that economic structures diverge across countries and

become more homogenous within countries.

The other question that arises is to consider whether there is global

social policy. Deacon (2005) argues that global social policy comprises

global social transfer (funds for various diseases, drug pricing, etc.), global

social regulation (labor standards, food quality regulation, etc.), and global

social rights (the UN agenda and its advancement, for example). Global

governance has a great deal of competition from several agencies, all seek-

ing to imprint their vision of global policy. The result is often a fragmented

approach to global policy (Deacon, 2005).

These theories and arguments indicate that significant concern

exists as to how the forces of globalization affect social policy. These

concerns raise another important issue concerning globalization and social

policy—the ethics of globalization.

Globalization and Ethics

The ethics of globalization ultimately centers around two questions: Who is

globalization good for? Who is it bad for? For those whose interests lie in the

health and environmental movement, ethical principles such as autonomy,

beneficence, nonmalfeasance, justice, utility, and stewardship are important

to the discussion. For others, global ethics must support social equity and

cultural diversity, as well as developing common global goals.

Global ethics are difficult to discuss without giving some thought to

the role of morality. But this further complicates the discussion, because

one has to ask “which morality?”. Is it the morality of the Western demo-

cratic societies? Many people are looking to the religious communities of

the world to provide some answer to this question. In a publication entitled

“Our Creative Diversity,” published by the World Commission on Culture

and Development, the UN, and UNESCO, the Commission lists several ele-

ments of a global civic culture that could provide the framework for a

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88 Social Work and Social Policy

global ethical code, including human rights and responsibilities, the peace-

ful resolution of conflicts, democracy and civic governance, the protection

of minorities, fairness of negotiation, and intergenerational equity (Pérez

de Cuéllar, 1997).

Many are now calling for global ethics that emerge from a process of

discussion and debate from global grassroots movements. These organiza-

tions proved to be quite powerful when they worked together to protest the

WTO meetings in Seattle, Washington, and the campaign against the WB

and the IMF. Their ability to join together across continents allowed for an

understanding of shared values and objectives. The production of common

statements of protest and organized actions begins to set the stage for dis-

cussion on global ethics. The question now is who will facilitate this process

and take responsibility for the ensuing debate (Mama, 2004).

Globalization, Policy, and Social Work Practice

Social workers see the concerns of globalization played out in their profes-

sional work. Exploitation of a low-wage-accepting workforce in one country

affects the employment policies and labor market of another country. Sex

tourism and exploitation of women and children in some parts of the world

become a legal and public health concern in other places. Immigration,

whether legal or illegal, has consequences for health and welfare systems,

school systems, and legal systems, as they attempt to help or hinder these

immigrants from residing in any one permanent place.

The first challenge for social work is to continue to raise the conscious-

ness of the profession to these global linkages with social policy. Irving,

Yeates, & Young (2005) propose beginning this consciousness-raising by

developing curriculum that integrates a global perspective into social policy

courses. They suggest that a global perspective on social policy promotes

understanding of:

• Attempts to formulate new forms of collective action to address social

needs

• Institutions and political processes that lie outside the control of a

single government

• Health and welfare arrangements and policy issues in countries at

different levels of socio-economic development

• The external social policies of governments as implemented bilater-

ally, plurilaterally, or multilaterally

• The social welfare dimensions and implications of foreign policy in

relation to trade, aid, finance, and economic development (Irving

et al., 2005, p. 478)

Policy courses that integrate global perspectives encourage students

to learn to better identify the actions and policies of their own country

vis-à-vis the consequences of these choices in other parts of the world.

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Social Policy From a Global Perspective 89

Social workers need to be engaged at all levels of government in think-

ing about solutions and approaches to social problems that are different

from past ideas. New welfare policies and new social work practices need

to be created, especially those that aim to integrate the world’s cultures in

a productive and culturally sensitive way.

Globalization, even though it has the ability to exploit, can create

opportunities for social justice:

International social work can, via its extensive contacts and cooperation on core

issues of social policy and social work, and by providing examples of alternative

forms for organizing social welfare and for a fairer distribution of income among

different groups, and furthermore, by disseminating the belief in the international

conventions on human rights and the rights of specific groups, enhance the idea

of democracy and human rights.

(Ahmadi, 2003, p. 18)

Social work is also well prepared to work on policy that leads to sol-

idarity and peace building among nations, which will have a direct impact

on global social policy. The profession has the ability to take on global

issues of poverty, women’s rights, children’s rights, and indigenous peoples’

rights, and can contribute to a global effort toward human values and ethics.

Key Terms

global ethics social policy

globalization economics

social work

Review Questions for Critical Thinking

1. How does an understanding of global issues and interconnectedness

impact the daily work of a social worker in the United States?

2. How has technology influenced globalization?

3. How do you see technology impacting the social work profession’s

role in an ever-increasing globalized world?

4. Should there be global policies that apply to all people and all nations

in the world?

5. For whom and in what countries is globalization good and bad?

Online Resources

Globalization101: www.globalization101.org/

Global Agenda on Social Work and Social Development: www

.globalsocialagenda.org/

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90 Social Work and Social Policy

International Social Work Associations

International Association of Schools of Social Work: www.iassw-aiets

.org

International Federation of Social Workers: http://ifsw.org/

International Council on Social Welfare: www.icsw.org

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