Elementary School Counselors and Teachers: Collaborators for Higher Student Achievement Author(s): Christopher A. Sink Reviewed work(s): Source: The Elementary School Journal, Vol. 108, No. 5 (May 2008), pp. 445-458 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/589473 . Accessed: 10/04/2012 17:28

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Elementary School Counselors and Teachers: Collaborators for Higher Student Achievement

Christopher A. Sink Seattle Pacific University

Abstract

In this article I contend that elementary school teachers need to work more closely with school counselors to enhance student learning and ac- ademic performance and to narrow the achieve- ment gap among student groups. Research showing the influence that counselors can exert on the educational process is summarized. Us- ing the American School Counselor Associa- tion’s organization framework for structuring counseling and guidance programs, I also illus- trate where the educative roles of teachers and school counselors overlap and give examples of how they can form more effective educational partnerships. Finally, I provide school-based ex- amples of this team approach.

In recent years, with the passage of the high- stakes No Child Left Behind (NCLB, 2001) legislation, academic testing has clearly been on the minds of K–12 educators, including elementary school counselors (Blacher, Murray-Ward, & Uellendahl, 2005; Thorn & Mulvenon, 2002). Because schooling is a community endeavor, it seems unfair that the onus has fallen largely on teachers to ensure that children begin their academic lives on a solid foundation. Scores on state- wide accountability tests are scrutinized by the public to determine whether schools and districts are academically successful and by educators to identify children at risk for sig- nificant academic difficulties. Many elemen- tary school teachers feel they are educating students in isolation without much support from the children’s caregivers or, in some cases, other school personnel (i.e., counselors, administrators, etc.). Over the last 10 years or so, elementary school counselors have been educated to be associates in the process of raising student achievement and closing the

gap between the well educated and the chil- dren “left behind” (Dahir, 2004; Gysbers, 2004).

In fact, the American School Counselor Association’s (ASCA, 2003, 2005) recent pub- lications, and key leaders in the school coun- seling profession (e.g., Gysbers & Henderson, 2005; Paisley & McMahon, 2001), encourage elementary school counselors to help in ac- complishing their schools’ educational mis- sions and to become more involved with teachers as they assist students in meeting their academic goals. The school counseling accountability movement is also rooted in ASCA’s (2004b) role statement. For example, elementary school counselors are assumed to “use data to show the impact of the school counseling program on school improvement and student achievement” (italics added). Moreover, school counselors’ ethical stan- dards insist that these professionals ap- praise the effectiveness of their programs, activities, and services in terms of fostering “students’ academic, career and personal/ social development through accountability measures especially examining efforts to close achievement, opportunity and attain- ment gaps” (ASCA, 2004a; see sect. A.9; Evaluation, Assessment and Interpreta- tion). In short, ethically minded school counselors have moved off the educational sidelines and now play a more pivotal role in helping teachers promote student aca- demic success (Dahir & Stone, 2003; Gys- bers, 2003; Sink, 2005; Webb & Brigman, 2006).

In this article I explore the ways elemen- tary school counselors and teachers can work together more effectively to promote student achievement. To accomplish this, I review the salient research literature that supports the elementary school counselor’s role in fostering educational outcomes, sum- marize the key areas for these partnerships within the educational framework of com- prehensive school counseling programs (CSCPs), and practically illustrate how school counselor-teacher academic teams can best function within elementary school settings.

School Counselors Contribute to Educational Outcomes Because it is beyond the scope of this article to review all the research documenting the valuable contributions elementary school counselors make to the teacher-learning process, I summarize here only the most important research conclusions. First, there is now sufficient evidence to suggest that school counselors are helping other educa- tors (i.e., teachers, administrators, etc.) pro- mote academic-educational outcomes on four levels: school, classroom, small group, and one-to-one. To underscore this conclu- sion, an American Psychological Associa- tion (2002) policy briefing statement on the importance of elementary and secondary school counseling programs argued that “over 20 years of research demonstrates that school counseling and mental health services can significantly improve student achievement and school attendance, and reduce disruptive behavior.” More re- cently, the American Counseling Associa- tion’s (2007) policy statement based on de- cades of research on the effectiveness of school counseling–related educational in- terventions further documented this asser- tion. Below, I elaborate on this research base by providing evidence that elemen- tary school counselors promote healthy learning environments as well as aug- ment the educational-academic progress of schoolchildren.

Although the research base is not de- finitive, it reveals that school counselors enhance school and classroom learning environments by partnering with other educators to create culturally sensitive, positive, warm, and caring milieus— places where children (and their caregiv- ers) want to invest themselves academi- cally (see Hernández & Seem [2004] and Sink & Spencer [2005] for reviews). For instance, early on, Gerler (1985) demon- strated the value of elementary school counselors and their role in facilitating a positive classroom environment and one

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that is more academically focused. Subse- quently, an in-depth ethnographic school counseling study showed that an elemen- tary school counselor in collaboration with other building educators was able to improve the overall school climate and move the school toward a healthier learn- ing environment (Littrell & Peterson, 2001). Similarly, a school improvement evaluation study conducted in an ethni- cally diverse, inner-city Atlanta elemen- tary school (Reed & Holton, 2002–2003) indicated that the school counselor’s ac- tivities were promoting a positive learn- ing climate.

Again, more research needs to be con- ducted, but initial findings across a variety of elementary school counseling studies suggest that counselors are also positively influenc- ing student academic outcomes. For instance, a large-scale study conducted across Wash- ington state’s elementary schools showed that early elementary-age students enrolled for several years in the same school with well-established comprehensive school coun- seling programs (CSCPs) produced higher achievement test scores than students en- rolled for the same length of time in non- CSCP elementary schools (Sink & Stroh, 2003; see below and Gysbers & Henderson, 2005, for extensive discussion of CSCPs and this body of research).

Smaller-scale investigations conducted in elementary schools using educational and counseling-related activities and inter- ventions (e.g., consultation, one-to-one and small-group counseling, and classroom guidance lessons aimed at improving study skills, behavior, attitudes toward school, homework completion, and academic self- efficacy) showed that student academic/ educational performances (e.g., reading, grades, test scores) could be, in part, im- proved (see Borders & Drury, 1992; Gys- bers, 2004; Lapan, 2005; McGannon, Carey, & Dimmitt, 2005; Webb, Brigman, & Camp- bell, 2005; Whiston, 2003; Whiston & Sex- ton, 1998, for reviews). A series of quasi- experimental studies, for example, by

Brigman and colleagues (Brigman & Camp- bell, 2003; Brigman & Webb, 2003; Camp- bell & Brigman, 2005; Webb et al., 2005) conducted with elementary and middle school students indicated that counselor- led academically focused small groups can improve academic achievement and social competence. Presumably the Student Suc- cess Skills curriculum developed and used in these small groups is an effective tool for assisting elementary school students in gaining the necessary academic skills to achieve on school-based measures (Webb et al., 2005; Webb & Brigman, 2006). Fi- nally, school counselors in general are hav- ing a constructive influence on school behaviors associated with improved aca- demic achievement, including, for exam- ple, decreased test anxiety (Cheek, Bradley, Reynolds, & Coy, 2002) and enhanced so- cial skills (Boutwell & Myrick, 1992; Omizo, Hershberger, & Omizo, 1988).

In summary, elementary school coun- selors make a significant difference in stu- dents’ academic lives. In addition, research underscores the need for closer counselor- teacher partnerships to more effectively ac- complish common educational goals. Areas of mutual concern for teachers and coun- selors that affect student learning and achievement are addressed in the following section.

A Framework for Effective Counselor-Teacher Collaboration Academic success involves not only helpful and supportive collaborative relationships among key school constituency groups (i.e., children, caregivers, and school personnel; Amatea, Daniels, Bringman, & Vandiver, 2004; Overton, 2004) but also addressing important educationally related dimen- sions that are specific to each group (see Fig. 1 for a visual overview). The educa- tional psychology literature indicates that for children to be academically successful in schools, counselors and teachers must be allied to help students (a) kindle their mo-

ACHIEVEMENT 447

tivation to achieve, (b) reach their academic potential, (c) maximize their academic self- efficacy, and (d) develop and maintain sup- portive peer relationships (John-Steiner & Mahn, 2003; Pintrich, 2003; Schunk & Zim- merman, 2003; Stroh & Sink, 2002). Care-

givers must be actively engaged in their children’s education at the school, in the classroom, and at home. Especially within the last 2 decades or so, research has also strongly suggested that school personnel need to provide students (and their care-

FIG. 1.—Key dimensions for elementary teacher–school counselor collaboration to promote academic achievement. These key dimensions are situated within the context of the Developmental Systems Theory (Lerner et al., 2005) and the American School Counselor Association’s (2005) National Model for Comprehensive School Counseling Programs.

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givers) a caring and inviting community that encourages learning, quality instruc- tion, effective student support services (e.g., counseling, special education), as well as friendly caregiver–school personnel re- lationships (Baker, Terry, Bridger, & Win- sor, 1997; Noddings, 1988).

Given that school counselors are inti- mately involved in the educational process, ASCA (2005) has recently produced an or- ganizational framework, the National Model for Comprehensive School Counsel- ing Programs, to guide their professional practices (see also Gysbers & Henderson, 2005). Because these comprehensive pro- grams infuse notions underlying holistic views of human development (see Lerner, 2002, for a review), including developmen- tal contextualism (Lerner, 2004), dynamic systems approach (Thelen & Smith, 1994), and Bronfrenner’s (Bronfenbrenner, 2005; Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 1998) bioecologi- cal model, other building educators such as teachers and administrators who are key contributors to schoolchildren’s “educa- tional subsystem” are encouraged to work with elementary school counselors to help children achieve educational competencies, assist caregivers in navigating the school- ing process, and facilitate the develop- ment of caring communities of learning (Sink, 2000). Figure 1 illustrates how ele- mentary school counselor-teacher part- nerships need to be situated within the context of comprehensive school counsel- ing programs. ASCA’s website (www. schoolcounselor.org) has a useful sum- mary of how the national school counseling model functions in schools and school districts.

Because of the model’s (ASCA, 2005) widespread publicity and distribution, many elementary school counselors, and perhaps some teachers, should now be familiar with it. The model emphasizes accountability (results-based), systems thinking, and sup- port to all students. Comprehensive-program school counselors assist the educational sys- tem to function more collaboratively and to

realize student competences in several devel- opmental domains (academic, career, and personal-social). Perhaps most important for teachers, elementary school counselors are to actively support student achievement.

The national model provides a research- based structure to facilitate these elemen- tary school counselor-teacher partnerships. It has four interconnected elements: (a) foundation (e.g., the program’s underlying beliefs, philosophy, and mission; and stu- dent competencies); (b) delivery system (e.g., the activities, interactions, and meth- ods to deliver the program); (c) manage- ment systems (e.g., the organizational pro- cesses, procedures, and tools to make certain the program is well organized, con- gruent with the actual learning milieu, clearly outlined, and responsive to the school’s needs); and (d) accountability (e.g., the processes and procedures to evaluate the program’s effectiveness across multiple areas). Embedded in a comprehensive ap- proach to elementary school counseling are these school counselor qualities: profession- alism, leadership, advocacy, and collabora- tion. According to the framers of the national model, these characteristics help facilitate systemic change in elementary schools (e.g., revising attendance or discipline policies).

On a practical level, the national model ultimately guides most collaborative work between counselors and teachers as they assist schoolchildren and their caregivers. It should be used, for instance, to develop relevant student competencies, to create useful classroom guidance curriculum and evaluation tools, as well as to help students transition into middle/junior high school. In short, the model helps support and di- rect the vital relationship between elemen- tary school counselors and teachers.

Having outlined the educational areas for school counselor-teacher collaborations and the organizational structure to direct their efforts, I now discuss an assortment of practical ways elementary school counsel- ors support classroom teachers in fostering academic achievement.

ACHIEVEMENT 449

Counselor-Teacher Educational Partnerships in Action Research has demonstrated the value of closer teacher-counselor partnerships as the two groups collaborate to foster children’s educational development and achievement (e.g., Amatea et al., 2004; Beesley, 2004; Griggs, 1990; Margolis, McCabe, & Alber, 2004; Otwell & Mullis, 1997; Paisley & Hayes, 2003; Stringer, Reynolds, & Simpson, 2003). For example, over 15 years ago, Griggs (1990) addressed the helpfulness of school counsel- or-teacher cooperation in promoting study skills; subsequently, researchers have ex- plored the use of consultation and coordina- tion (e.g., Campbell, 1992; Cashwell, Cash- well, & Skinner, 2001; Christensen, 1997; Frye, 2005; Idol & Baran, 1992; Shure, Mo- rocco, DiGisi, & Yenkin, 1999), small-group counseling programs (e.g., Boutwell & Myr- ick, 1992; Campbell & Bowman, 1993; Webb et al., 2005), and classroom guidance lessons (e.g., Campbell, 1991; Lee, 1993; Sears, 2005) to promote children’s academic developmen- tal (Dahir & Stone, 2003). Other innovative school counseling specialists, for instance, have recommended counselor-teacher part- nerships that focus on improving student lit- eracy through literature circles (Stringer et al., 2003), using film to support gifted students’ learning (Hebert & Sergent, 2005), and in- creasing homework completion rates with less competent learners (Margolis et al., 2004). Finally, Beesley’s (2004) investigation provides evidence that elementary teachers view their elementary school counselors as effective and helpful to them. Specifically, el- ementary school teachers reported signifi- cantly greater satisfaction with school coun- seling services than their counterparts in middle/junior high and high schools (F � 4.90, p � .003). The top four service areas rated by teachers as school counselor strengths that can contribute to higher stu- dent academic performance were (1) class- room guidance (80%), (2) individual/group counseling (53%), (3) consultation (50%), and (4) coordination of special education services

(45%). Taken together, these publications in- dicate that the teacher-counselor educational partnerships I propose in this article are workable.

Borrowing from the positive youth de- velopment perspective that is associated with developmental systems theory (Ler- ner, Almerigi, Theokoas, & Lerner, 2005), in Table 1 I attempt to systematize these areas for educational collaboration into four overlapping levels. At the broadest level—whole-school collaboration— elemen- tary school counselors and teachers work to- gether on educationally related activities that are aimed at preventing children from falling into the “at risk for school failure” category. These include, for instance, implementing ASCA’s (2005) national model, conducting student assemblies, faculty in-service train- ing, parent/caregiver presentations, as well as co-coordinating peer and adult academic tutoring and grade-level transition activi- ties. Within the classroom, counselors and teachers would co-lead educationally fo- cused lessons (see below for an example), as well as consult and co-coordinate pre- vention activities and interventions focused on improving the learning environment and meeting student academic competen- cies. The next collaboration level involves elementary school counselors and teachers helping children in small groups with ed- ucational tasks that range from prevention to remediation of academic deficiencies. If work at the previous levels does not foster academic success, counselors and teachers then partner to identify and assist children who are at risk for school failure and re- quire substantial one-to-one counseling and/or educational remediation.

Sample Counselor and Teacher Collaboration Activities to Foster Academic Outcomes Although the popular and scientific litera- ture considered above is profitable to re- view, and Table 1 and Figure 1 provide

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useful depictions of the intersecting areas for educational partnerships, the following two examples illustrate how teacher- counselor collaborations can function in el- ementary schools.

Helping to Resolve Students’ Homework Troubles It is no surprise to elementary school

teachers that children with learning diffi- culties find completion and timely submis-

TABLE 1. Sample Teacher–School Counselor Collaboration Activities to Foster Academic Outcomes

Level (and Focus) Description Sample Cooperative

Activities/Interventions/Services

School (prevention of academic problems)

School counselors and teachers work together to create a school climate that reflects a caring community of learners. Partnership that promotes student learning, particularly for those children at risk of academic difficulties.

• Implementation of ASCA’s national model

• Assemblies related to learning • Faculty in-service programs on

educational issues • PTA presentations • Field trips • Service learning • Coordination of peer tutoring and

adult volunteer tutoring • Consultation and referral • Multidisciplinary team meetings • After-school academic support

groups • Program to ease K to first grade

and elementary to middle school transitions

Classroom (prevention and intervention)

School counselors and teachers collaborate to foster a classroom climate that supports caring, learning, and student mastery of academic developmental competencies.

• Co-teaching of classroom (whole group) guidance lessons on topics like study skills, test-taking, cognitive strategies

• Closing-the-gap interventions from, e.g., the ASCA national model

• Consultation and coordination on improving learning

Small groups (prevention, intervention, and remediation)

School counselors and teachers work together to identify and intervene with individual students, especially those who need educational assistance within a small-group setting.

• School counselor-teacher collaboration on small-group goal setting, especially as goals relate to educational outcomes

• School counselor conducts small groups on education-related topics and teacher reinforces learning in the classroom

Individual (remediation) School counselors and teachers work together to identify and remediate individual students’ academic challenges, especially those who need individual assistance.

• School counselor-teacher collaboration on goal setting within individual counseling, especially as goals relate to educational outcomes

• School counselor conducts one-to- one sessions with students on education-related topics and teacher reinforces learning in the classroom

• School counselor and teacher collaborate to find an appropriate peer tutor for students at risk

• Interpreting results of achievement testing

ACHIEVEMENT 451

sion of their out-of-class assignments chal- lenging (e.g., Bryan, Burstein, & Bryan, 2001). But some teachers may not know that elementary school counselors are trained to help ameliorate this problem. Al- though the evidence linking homework completion and higher achievement at the elementary level remains equivocal (Coo- per, 2006; Trautwein & Köller, 2003), Mar- golis et al. (2004) provided a useful blue- print for teachers and school counselors to follow in which the counseling profession- als team with instructors, serving as educa- tional consultants and co-teachers. Initially, counselors confer with teachers on possible assessment strategies to use with students needing more focused interventions and re- mediation. Counselors are well trained to help diagnose children’s learning and homework needs and challenges, looking, for example, at how students approach their assignments, how often they make mistakes, how they cope with seemingly intractable learning problems, how they use learning strategies, how they react to positive and negative consequences, and how they self-evaluate their school prob- lems. Moreover, counselors can assist teachers in assessing school-classroom en- vironmental obstacles to students’ educa- tional progress (Overton, 2004). For exam- ple, elementary school counselors can help teachers appraise students’ learning envi- ronments as they may relate to their emo- tional health as well as their academic self- concept and self-efficacy. If the classroom climate fails to promote affective and aca- demic well-being, homework completion may become a low priority for children. Finally, counselors play a vital role in as- sisting teachers to make better use of as- sessment data, both large scale (e.g., stan- dardized testing) and classroom-level (e.g., functional behavior analysis), to identify instructional weaknesses and individual student learning problems (Brown, Galassi, & Akos, 2004; Sugai, Lewis-Palmer, & Hagan-Burke, 2000).

Further steps are often taken as well.

Elementary school counselors partner with teachers to enlist additional parent/care- giver support and involvement. Next, these professionals assist teachers with planning and implementing homework interven- tions (e.g., in the classroom school counsel- ors, with guidance from teachers, work 10 minutes three times a week with a small group of struggling learners on acquiring relevant study strategies, particularly re- garding homework completion). Finally, if short-term classroom interventions do not produce the desired results, counselors can assist teachers in developing and institut- ing more intensive educational support (e.g., ongoing behavior adjustment plans, cross-age peer coaching programs, one- to-one tutoring/counseling). If need be, school counselors can also aid in creating relevant evaluation tools and making refer- rals to internal or external learning special- ists. Naturally, readers will want to review the Margolis et al. (2004) publication for additional ideas.

Co-Teaching a Math-Interpersonal Skills Lesson To briefly show how elementary school

counselors and teachers can forge closer links to promote academic achievement in the classroom, I summarize here a sample mathematics/guidance lesson (a blended and dual-purpose lesson) that would be co- facilitated to upper elementary-age chil- dren. Similar to the elementary math cur- riculum discussed in Everyday Math (Bell, 2001), the lesson plan I overview in the appendix integrates the mathematical properties of number categories (e.g., whole, rational, and real numbers and in- tegers) and number lines with important psychosocial concepts. The plan includes sample performance-based outcomes, dif- ferentiated classroom responsibilities, ma- terials needed, sample procedures and pro- cesses, and evaluation methods.

Teacher-counselor preparation and close collaboration are obviously necessary. As

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such, logistics are vital to discuss early on. Counselors should contact teachers at the start of the school year. Discussion needs to focus on when these types of blended les- sons would best fit into the instructor’s cur- ricular scope and sequence. Then, they are added to the teachers’ and counselors’ mas- ter planning schedules. At least 1 week prior to the co-teaching experience, coun- selors and teachers should meet to finalize the lesson plan and coordinate the teaching activities and procedures.

During the class period, the teacher works with students on mathematical con- cepts, and the counselor helps children think through the interpersonal-psychosocial is- sues embedded and experienced in the les- son. The counselor explores with students these sample issues: (a) the importance of cooperation and negotiation to accomplish a common task; (b) the power of labeling (“You’re a zero,” “You’re way out there”); (c) the use of “I” statements; (d) how to appro- priately express feelings within a group set- ting; and (e) who are the class’s natural lead- ers and who are the followers and why (ASCA, 2005; Wittmer, Thompson, & Loesch, 1997). Both educators share responsibilities for preparation, using a variety of relevant methods of teaching, classroom manage- ment, and student evaluation.

To illustrate how this might look during the actual lesson, consider this example. When the children are sitting on the num- ber line after they have positioned them- selves “correctly” based on earlier instruc- tions (see lesson plan in the Appendix), the counselor discusses with the children their experiences of finding their place on the number line as well as how they cooper- ated with each other and negotiated their position. (The teacher is helping to main- tain classroom decorum.) The counselor might ask such open-ended questions as (a) What ways did you use to find your spot on the line? (The counselor and teacher may provide some hints based on their ob- servations.) (b) What was hard about find- ing your place on the number line? (c) How

did you help each other? (Again, the teacher and counselor may provide some cues.) (d) Did you notice that some of you took charge and helped others, while some of you followed others’ directions? Raise your hand if you helped others get where they needed to be on the number line. How does it feel to help others? (e) Did any of you have numbers you did not like? Why? Who liked their number? Why? (The teacher and counselor, for example, discuss with the children how sometimes labels like being called a “zero” or being associ- ated with something negative can hurt oth- ers’ feelings.) (f) Now, think about when you started school this year with your new classroom teacher. How did you feel walk- ing into a brand new room with a new teacher? (Here, the teacher first models how to appropriately share personal feel- ings using “I” statements as she speaks about starting school with a new group of schoolchildren. The school counselor will assist with classroom management.) (g) How might we help new children who en- ter our classroom or school to feel more accepted and cared for? Throughout this discussion, the counselor and teacher re- mind the children to use “I” statements. Subsequently, the teacher and counselor cluster children who are in close proximity into small groups, giving students a brief assignment to apply what they learned to a relevant classroom scenario (e.g., a new boy from another country comes to class). While maintaining classroom discipline, the teacher and school counselor rotate to each group, helping them develop a couple of ideas that they can share with the class.

Of course, these blended lessons can be developed across a variety of other subjects such as art, physical education, language arts, and science. The key is that counselors and teachers work together, infusing aca- demic objectives with more counseling- related outcomes. It is incumbent on school counselors to work with teachers to make the time academically useful and not sim- ply a “dog and pony show,” where their

ACHIEVEMENT 453

classroom guidance lessons are divorced from serious academic goals.

Conclusion and Summary For the near future at least, the public’s call for measurable achievement gains will not disappear like a passing fad. School coun- selors and classroom teachers are keenly aware of this fact and have been doing their best to respond adequately to this high- stakes challenge. Though there is substantial value in promoting richer academic collabo- ration among building educators (and with parents), regrettably, some schools have yet to see productive teacher-counselor partner- ships as described in this article. Evidence suggests that school counselors and other ed- ucators who operate out of a comprehensive program will find they can be more effective in promoting general learning skills and rais- ing test scores (Sink & Stroh, 2003). Some interdepartmental conflict is bound to occur, requiring constructive problem solving and patience. From my experience, the mainstays of flourishing partnerships are good commu- nication, openness to alternatives/personal flexibility, and professional respect.

Research reviewed in this article pro- vides some evidence that effective collabo- rative relationships focused on supporting children’s learning are associated with pos- itive academic outcomes. Other important members of the school community should benefit as well. Caregivers/parents will ap- preciate seeing teachers and school coun- selors working closely together to support their children’s academic success. Counsel- ing and teaching professionals who shoul- der the heavy academic load together should find the task far less burdensome.

In summary, in this article I address the importance of academic collaboration be- tween elementary school teachers and school counselors. They share the responsi- bility for educating children, and, to do so effectively, they must form mutually sup- portive partnerships that enhance learning and academic outcomes at the whole-

school level, in classrooms, in small student groups, and with individual children. For- tunately, the literature is replete with ex- amples of how to accomplish this end.

Appendix

Summary of Mathematics/Guidance Lesson Plan Title: Understanding Number Categories and Number-Line Properties Developmental domains: Academic (mathemat- ics) and psychosocial (interpersonal) Grade level: Upper-elementary grades Time required: �45 minutes Sample performance-based objectives/compe- tencies: Mathematics:

• Demonstrate knowledge of number categories (e.g., integers, counting, whole, rational numbers, and real numbers)

• Demonstrate understanding of num- ber line

Psychosocial:

• Show how to make an “I” statement • Show cooperation and negotiation • Share the experience—what it feels

like to be labeled • Vocalize empathetic statements • Classroom responsibilities

Teacher (T) general roles:

• Conducts overview of whole, inte- gers, and real numbers as they relate to the properties of a number line

• Assists with class management • Assists with organizing and manag-

ing cooperative learning groups • Collects and helps evaluate home-

work assignment the following day

School counselor (SC) general roles:

• Leads discussion of psychosocial as- pects of lesson

• Assists with class management • Assists with organizing and manag-

ing cooperative learning groups • Helps evaluate homework assignment

the following day

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Materials needed:

• Masking tape • Overhead projector, white board, or

chalkboard • Transparencies, dry-eraser markers,

or chalk • 40 3" by 5" cards with a zero card and

various negative and positive num- bers on them (e.g., negative end of number line � �20, and positive end � 20; multiple cards in between with positive and negative whole and decimal numbers, and include several cards with same number on them)

• Number categories and number-line homework sheet (available upon re- quest) as evaluation measure. The sheet could also ask about psychoso- cial concepts explored.

Sample procedures and processes: Prior to day’s lesson: T & SC: Create a homework sheet that asks children to practice concepts explored in class T: Makes number cards (3 � 5) T: Writes on transparency these words: whole, counting, real numbers, integers, and number line SC: Makes a single line across the entire class- room (corner to corner) with masking tape, moving the desks as needed Lesson: T: Introduces SC and the topic of numbers and number lines; using the transparency asks chil- dren what they remember about types of num- bers and properties of number lines and writes down their ideas on transparency (10 min.) SC: Passes one number card to each student, telling them to keep their number “secret” (1 min.) T: Asks children to (a) arrange themselves, using their secret number cards, quietly (nonverbal negotiation and cooperation), without talking and using only hand signals, on the masking tape number line (T & SC monitor nonverbally and assist children as needed) (allow 3–5 min.); (b) to sit once they have settled onto their spot on the line; (c) talk about how they ended up where they are, and T processes the characteris- tics of a number line; (d) raise their hands if they are, e.g., whole, rational, or real numbers, inte- gers, and T clarifies misunderstandings, etc. (10 min.) SC: Processes with children (a) how they nego- tiated and worked together to get on the number line and value of doing this; (b) who took lead- ership vs. follower roles and why; (c) the under-

lying “meanings” people in the real world use to categorize others (e.g., what it means to be a “zero,” a negative vs. a positive person, how it feels to be close to a zero vs. being on the ends of the number line, less than a person [.5]); (d) the labels/categories (�/�) they use with their peers, how it might feel to be one of those labels, and why it’s important not categorize others (10 –15 min.) T: As a check for understanding, breaks children into small groups along the number line and asks each group to come up with an example of each type of number, writing each with its label on one of the number cards and children’s names on it. SC collects them for evaluation (5 min.) SC: Reads a relevant short story (e.g., about la- beling or leadership, and summarizes key no- tions) out of, perhaps Chicken Soup for the Kid’s Soul 2 (Canfield, Hansen, Hansen, & Dunlap, 2006) (5 min.) T: Distributes homework sheet Evaluation: Students will be evaluated by performance (a) in class activities and (b) on homework assignment (available upon request)

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