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53Internal Security, July–December 2015
Similarities and Differences Between Organized Crime and Terrorism Waldemar Zubrzycki Police Academy in Szczytno, Poland
Abstract. Terrorism is one of the greatest threats to the modern world, not only in respect of internal security of individual states but also at an international level. However, for many years there has been an escalation of another, equally dangerous phenomenon — that of organized crime. This has been due to many factors, including the collapse of the so-called “Eastern bloc”, and the financial and social globalisation of the economy. Both threats are a manifestation of a particular kind of group crime, although with distinctly different characters. The distinguishing elements are the ideological basis underlying the conduct of their activities as well as the aims which their members seek to achieve. The aims of terrorist organisations are of a political, ideological or religious nature. For them money plays an indirect role, it is not an end in itself but a necessity to serve the higher purpose. Organised crime groups carry out their activities exclusively in order to achieve financial gain. Despite these distinct aims, which differ between the organised criminal group and the terrorist organisation, the two categories employ acts of violence and terror, causing a sense of anxiety amongst individuals or social groups. There are also areas which give rise to their mutual co-operation, and the trend for there to be contact between the two forms of group crime is noticeable all over the world. Both types of organisations gain mutual benefit from their experience, and organised crime may also be one way of raising funds for terrorist activities. In the field of preventing and combating both terrorism and organised crime, it should be noted that responsibility falls to several services and institutions, most of which perform tasks in relation to both types of crime. This is also the case in respect of the legal basis for their actions. To a large extent the responsibility for both types of crimes under discussion are determined on the basis of common legislation.
DOI: 10.5604/20805268.1212112 http://dx.doi.org/10.5604/20805268.1212112
Keywords: criminal group, organised crime, terrorism, terrorist organisations, terrorists
Introduction
Terrorism is undoubtedly one of the greatest threats of our times. However, for a number of years there has been escalation of another dangerous phenomenon — that of organized crime. Furthermore, this type of crime has a new face and, as such, has become a serious problem for the modern world. This is due to many factors, amongst others financial and social globalisation of the economy, the collapse of the so-called Eastern bloc, development of the market for financial products, as well as quick and anonymous movement of capital.1 In trying to determine the relationships between organised crime groups and terrorist organisations, it is essential to indicate the main similarities and differences in terms of forms of, and motivation for, their activities.2
1 Pływaczewski E, Wokół związków terroryzmu z przestępczością zorganizowaną. Policja, 2008, No. 1, p. 13.
2 Cichomski M, Madej K, Przenikanie się przestępczości zorganizowanej i terroryzmu [in:] Zubrzycki W (Ed.), Przeciwdziałanie zagrożeniom terrorystycznym w Polsce. Warsaw, 2011, p. 96.
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Group activities
Contemporary organised crime and terrorism are classified as specific forms of group crime. The fact that they are both organised is a primary feature uniting the two phenomena. Both terrorism and organised crime form a special subset within group crime, although with distinctly different characters.3
From a sociological point of view, the concept of a group means a number of people (at least three), with shared values and separated from other groups as expressed by the principle of autonomy. Characteristic features of such a group are members who define the objectives of the group and identify with its collective aims, as well as the specific tasks of group members and their functions. It can be argued that a criminal group is a kind of societal group and the above character- istics can be attributed to it. This is because, from the point of view of sociology, each group has a particular structure or arrangement of individuals, their roles and relationships in the functional whole, in which the principle of mutual sub- ordination does not impede the functioning of the group.4 In practice, the point is that the organisation determines the division of roles and coordinates the actions of participants in committing crimes so that these are enabled or facilitated, and also obstructs its own discovery. The activities of the organisation are extremely secretive, its actions being meticulously planned and prepared from a logistical point of view.5
A feature of organised crime is its resilience along with its multi-level structure, the planned, long-term nature of its illegal activity, and exploitation of opportuni- ties for legal undertakings.6 Within each criminal group there is strategic and tactical planning, reasoned activity and assigned roles (division of labour). Each member specialises in specific activities in the field of planning and execution of the crime.7 Where considered appropriate, there is a continuous process of creation and disso- lution.8
The main document regulating the principles of preventing and combating transnational organised crime is the United Nations Convention against Transna- tional Organised Crime,9 also known as the Palermo Convention, adopted on 15 November 2000, and which came into force on 29 September 2003.10 The conven- tion does not contain a broad definition of organised crime, however, in Article 2 it states that, for the purposes of the Convention, an organised criminal group is “a structured group of three or more persons, existing for a period of time
3 Pływaczewski E, Przestępczość zorganizowana i jej zwalczanie w Europie Zachodniej (ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem Republiki Federalnej Niemiec). Warsaw, 1992, p. 28.
4 Zakrzewski P, Glosa do wyroku z 12 sierpnia 1959 r., Państwo i Prawo, 1960, No. 8–9, pp. 468–469.
5 Electronic source: http://www.us.edu.pl/uniwersytet/obrona/ter2.php, accessed: 19.01.2014.
6 Sifakis C, Mafia amerykańska. Encyklopedia. Warsaw, 2007, p. 25. 7 Kołakowska-Przełomiec H, Zapobieganie przestępczości: studium kryminologiczne.
Wrocław, 1984, p. 47. 8 Krukowski A, Problemy zapobiegania przestępczości. Warsaw, 1982, p. 41. 9 The convention is the Polish initiative. 10 Dz. U. [Journal of Laws], 2005, No. 18, item 158.
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and acting in concert with the aim of committing one or more serious crimes or offences established in accordance with this Convention, in order to obtain, directly or indirectly, a financial or other material benefit”.11
The characteristics that identify a group as organised are: — the existence of a group structure — which means that the group was not
created in a random way, but directly for the purpose of committing a crime; — the size of the group — at least three persons; — an undetermined period of operation; — the criminal nature of the agreement between the members of the group
who are themselves aware of this; — an established aim of the group, which is to achieve a financial or other
material benefit; — the serious nature of the crimes committed — punishable by a maximum
deprivation of liberty of at least four years or a more serious penalty.12
The very definition of the nature of organised crime shows that, contrary to ter- rorism, a solitary individual cannot be party to it.
In practice, as a rule, terrorism also bears the hallmarks of group behaviour.13 Terrorist groups have separate divisions whose members share ideology, but do not maintain direct contact with each other. This means that the detection of one cell does not expose others. The planning of attacks involves many people who are unconnected in any way. They employ classic intelligence methods, and a planned attack involves a number of liaison groups and branches for special tasks.14
In talking about terrorist activity, the use of violence must be prolonged behaviour, taking place over a period of time, as solitary attacks do not count as a mark of terrorism. Random, chaotic attacks are not terrorist activities; the inten- tions of genuine terrorism are both planned and organised.15
Despite their varied nature, both these types of activity by criminal groups are treated together under Polish legislation. Article 258 of the Penal Code16 criminalises participation in an organised group or organisation aimed at committing crimes:
Ҥ 1. Whoever participates in an organised group or a criminal organisation having for its purpose the commission of offences, including fiscal offences, shall be subject to the penalty of deprivation of liberty for a term of between 3 months and 5 years.
§ 2. In the event that the group or organisation specified in § 1 are of a military character, or their purpose is to commit a crime of a terrorist nature, the perpetrator shall be subject to the penalty of the deprivation of liberty for a term of between 6 months and 8 years.
§ 3. Whoever sets up or leads a group or an organisation specified in § 1, including those that are of a military character, shall be subject to the penalty of the deprivation of liberty of between one year and 10 years.
11 Pływaczewski E, Przestępczość zorganizowana…, op. cit., p. 56. 12 Ibid., p. 57. 13 Pływaczewski E, Wokół związków…, op. cit., p. 16. 14 Electronic source: http://www.us.edu.pl/uniwersytet/obrona/ter2.php, accessed:
19.01.2014. 15 Dietl W, Hirschmann K, Tophoven R, Terroryzm. Warsaw, 2011, p. 27. 16 Act of 6 June 1997 — Penal Code (Dz. U. [Journal of Laws] 1997 No. 88, item 553).
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§ 4. Whoever sets up or leads or commands a group or an organisation intending to commit an act of a terrorist nature, shall be subject to the penalty of the depriva- tion of liberty for a minimum term of 3 years”.
Elite
The cause of the increase in organised crime is associated with the social situa- tion of a country characterised by disorganisation and breakdown in relationships. This is facilitated by excessive (to the exclusion of all else) pursuit of material gains, the existence of a demand for illegal goods and services, a weakness of informal social control, and a low level of control of both state and local administrations. When this happens, social indicators drawn from the subculture come to the fore. The values, patterns and styles of behaviour of the criminal world are not only tolerated but affirmed. The criminals — rich, having luxury cars, surrounded by beautiful women — become role models, and not only amongst those moving in antisocial circles. The media create myths about them, supporting the existence of such organisations and creating an image of the offender-hero.17
Similarly, members of terrorist organisations are convinced of their uniqueness. They see themselves as the chosen few who expose themselves to danger on behalf of others having the same political beliefs. In their opinion, the risks involved will be rewarded either in this life on achieving victory, or in the form provided for martyrs dying for their faith or beliefs.18 At the same time, by functioning surrounded by an atmosphere of mystery, they are considered by their social base as an elite — heroes who are the angry arm of those oppressed.
Both groups of perpetrators achieve a feeling of power through the elimina- tion of others or by using violence against those who have prestige and fame, symbolically humiliating them. It is a projection of their own identity, where evil and corruption are attributed to others. This is in the nature of primitive defence mechanisms of childhood. In conjunction with narcissism, which is the inability to feel empathy towards others, the use of others to achieve their own goals, their own sense of legitimacy of their own actions, aggression, dehumanisation and devaluation of others; this type of mind as a consequence is demonstrated by a profound contempt for society. The overriding feeling or emotions experienced by terrorists and serial killers is a deep contempt for all that is human.19
Objectives
Terrorists and regular criminals have long-term goals. The main difference between organised criminal groups and terrorist organisations relates to the actions that they take.
17 Electronic source: http://www.nauki-spoleczne.info/przestepczosc-zorganizowana, accessed: 29.07.2014.
18 Hoffman B, Oblicza terroryzmu. Warsaw, 1999, p. 82. 19 Bierzanek R, Wojna a prawo międzynarodowe. Warsaw, 1982, pp. 77–78.
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The aim of terrorist organisations is, most of all, to transform a particular legal, economic, political, social or religious system. Their employment of acts of terror is a sine qua non for the realisation of their overriding objectives.20
The purpose of terrorist attacks is a desire to induce political change; in the case of religious terrorism this must go beyond the currently accepted boundaries of the faith, with the aim of provoking a change in the established order. The aim of the terrorists is not to seize power but to exert influence on the enemy, steering them according to their own needs and ideology.21
Among the key objectives set by terrorist organisations for themselves, one can point out first of all: the creation of an independent entity under international law (separatist movements — a new state); recovery of sovereignty; introduction of a preferred political, social or religious system in a country, or the fight against the existing systems; a sense of belonging to a community with similar principles. They seek to gain political support from international bodies, as well as funds to support the preparation for, and conduct of, acts of violence22 and their day-to- day activities.
With regard to the activities of criminal groups, these are primarily aimed at achieving the maximum profit, and rarely about gaining power (more about its control as a means for building their financial base).23 Their overriding goals include: providing permanent sources of funds, derived from criminal activity, to be used for criminal purposes; maintaining and expanding the organisational structure of the group (to ensure continuity of the organisation, control sources of criminal profits, control of other organisations, the struggle with other criminal groups, support of the organisation’s members in prison and of their families); ensuring the safety (legal protection) of and meeting the personal needs of individual mem- bers of the group; developing a sense of belonging to a community with similar principles.24
The most important difference between organised crime and terrorism is there- fore the aim of the activity set by leaders of both types of organisation and their basis. In the first case, the aim is not the overthrow or destruction of government but the subjugation of its activities (amongst other things by corrupting politicians, penetrating the country’s centres of decision-making, etc.). In the second case, the aim is the overthrow or destabilisation (that is preventing normal functioning) of the country’s existing constitutional, legal or economic order, etc. The common denominator for both phenomena is the method of action, that is, terror.25 Despite fundamental differences, it happens that terrorist groups and organised crime seek
20 Cichomski M, Madej K, Przenikanie się…, op. cit., p. 97. 21 Dietl W, Hirschmann K, Tophoven R, Terroryzm…, op. cit., pp. 27–28. 22 Raport o stanie bezpieczeństwa w Polsce w 2008 roku, MSWiA. Electronic source: http://
bip.msw.gov.pl/bip/raport-o-stanie-bezpie/18405,Raport-o-stanie-bezpieczenstwa.html, accessed: 29.07.2014, p. 188.
23 Cichomski M, Madej K, Analiza dotycząca styku przestępczości zorganizowanej i terroryzmu, Wydział ds. Analiz Departamentu Bezpieczeństwa Publicznego MSWiA, 2008 (unpublished material), p. 1.
24 Raport o stanie bezpieczeństwa…, op. cit., p. 188. 25 Leszczyński T, Związek terroryzmu z przestępczością zorganizowaną. Warsaw, 2005,
p. 127.
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to achieve the same political objectives — to gain power in a country or region of the world.26
According to the traditional view, complex criminal structures aim to maintain the existing social order, especially in countries where the central government is weak and in a period of transition27 or are ethnically homogenous, rather than seek to change the existing social order. The inner weakness of the state makes it pos- sible to create the foundations of a “parallel authority”28 opposed to the one that is official but inefficient. In such cases, criminal organisations take control of some of the areas of life attributable to the State,29 including providing “a guarantee of security” (there are currently examples of this in South America, amongst others). Sources which shape “parallel authority” are believed to be a weakness of state structures as a result of an inability to ensure that state authorities have adequate access to public goods and an erosion of political systems. In such countries, one can identify elements of both a distance and a kind of symbiosis between the state authorities and structures of a criminal nature. Often in such an arrangement established organisations can serve as a pretext or aid in the removal of political opponents (similarly, such action may also refer to terrorist organisations).30
Terrorist organisations are also developing particularly rapidly in areas where the actions of the state apparatus are weakened. The difference in this case lies in the fact that such organisations and related environments treat this “weakness” simply as an opportunity to introduce a new system postulated by themselves.31
The International Character
Up until the days of Al-Qaeda, terrorism was local and mostly contained within a nation’s territory.32 In its character and form up to the end of the 1960s it was gen- erally considered to be a marginal threat. Later on, the term “international terrorism” began to be used and appeared increasingly in global information networks.33
Another factor that has significantly contributed to the development of terror- ism is globalisation creating favorable conditions for its development. The opening of borders to free trade positively influences the movements of terrorist groups
26 In Chechnya they seized power together in 1995, Balkan terrorists and mafias came to power in Kosovo, after the victory in the Gaza Strip Hamas got rid of organized crime.
27 Countries of the former Soviet bloc serve as examples of this. 28 Ongoing or occurring simultaneously with something else, the same or similar in some
respects, Słownik języka polskiego PWN. Electronic source: http://sjp.pwn.pl/slownik/2570641/ paralelny, accessed: 31.07. 2014.
29 See: Laskowska K, Azjatyckie zorganizowane grupy przestępcze. Prokuratura i Prawo, 2004, No. 7–8, p. 165.
30 Cichomski M, Madej K, Analiza…, op. cit., p. 1. 31 Cichomski M, Madej K, Przenikanie się…, op. cit., p. 99. 32 Jakubczak R, Terroryzm współczesny — aspekty społeczno -gospodarcze [in:] Żuber M
(Ed.), Katastrofy naturalne i cywilizacyjne. Terroryzm współczesny. Aspekty polityczne, spo- łeczne i ekonomiczne. Wrocław, 2006, p. 34.
33 Horgan J, Psychologia terroryzmu. Warsaw, 2008, p. 9.
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in the world. As a result, terrorists are gaining a very large number of people willing to cooperate, as well as access to a huge number of buildings of administrative and economic importance to the functioning of society.34
Terrorism and its activities are not only a threat to life, but also to individual coun- tries and international organisations. Terrorism is a serious problem for the modern world because — due to its nature — it may threaten the social order, international relations and, using weapons of mass destruction, the very existence of humanity. As a consequence, terrorism is considered to be an act of violence of international importance.35
Organised crime is also a criminal phenomenon that occurs on an international scale. The growth of organised crime groups as well as the expansion of their base and activities are facilitated by social and political changes and economic devel- opments in Central and Eastern Europe, the opening of borders, free movement of people and ideas, liberal laws, and weak institutions responsible for combat- ing crime. All these factors have created new opportunities for its development. As a consequence, there have come into being complex international organisations of perpetrators of a more and more superior structure and concealment, displaying substantial inter-regional mobility. They use modern means of transport and com- munication, data processing, radio and flight connections,36 making cross-border activity unproblematic for them.
The fact that the security threats posed by international organised crime are not only regional but also global was first reported in the Human Development Report of 199437 published by the Office of the United Nations Development Programme.38 It also highlighted the links between international organised crime and terrorism. The report indicates that when there is a risk to the safety of people in any part of the world, this can spread to all nations. Drought, disease, pollution, illegal traf- ficking in narcotic drugs, terrorism, ethnic conflicts and social disintegration are no longer isolated events, contained within national borders. Their consequences are felt around the world.39
The International Criminal Police Organisation40 believes that organised crime is any relationship between people that carries out — across borders — illegal activities in order to make profits. This is an interesting definition because it attaches importance to the globalisation of punishable activities. However, it is narrow because it places too much emphasis on the international aspect. It should be emphasised that organised crime without international connections also exists in different countries41 and poses a threat to their national security.
34 Jakubczak R, Terroryzm współczesny…, op. cit., p. 34. 35 Electronic source: http://www.chodkowska.edu.pl/app_cm3/files/90390.pdf, accessed:
06.01.2014. 36 Kołakowska-Przełomiec H, Zapobieganie…, op. cit., p. 47. 37 Human Development Report, Oxford University Press, 1994. 38 United Nations Development Programme agenda, 1965. 39 Pływaczewski E, Wokół związków …, op. cit., p. 13. 40 The International Criminal Police Organization, INTERPOL. 41 Siemaszko A, Społeczne geneza przestępczości: wokół teorii zróżnicowanych powią-
zań. Warsaw, 1979, pp. 22–23.
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Financing
A significant similarity between organised crime and terrorism is the method by which they are financed. The events of 11 September 2001 resulted in an intensifica- tion of activities aimed at identifying and combating terrorists’ financial channels. In determining the way in which such activities were directed, attention was drawn to the similarity of the methods and techniques used for the purpose of money laundering. Therefore, to combat both phenomena the same legal instruments have been applied; in Poland, this is the Act of 16 November 2000 on counteracting money laundering and combating the financing of terrorism.42
The concept of the financing of terrorism is contained in the International Con- vention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism of 9 December 199943 as ratified by Poland in 2003. It defines terrorist financing as a direct or indirect, unlawful and willful provision or collection of funds with the intent to use them, or knowing that they will be used, in whole or in part to undertake:44
1) an act which constitutes an offence in the definition in one of the treaties listed in the annex (amongst other things, this refers to air and sea piracy, attacks on diplomats, hostage-taking, attempts to take control of nuclear materials, attempts to take control of rigs, terrorist bomb attacks);
2) an act intended to cause death or serious bodily injury to a civilian or other person not taking an active part in hostilities in a situation of armed conflict, if the purpose of such an act resulting either from his character or the con- text in which it is committed is to: a) intimidate the population, b) compel the government or an international organisation to undertake
or to refrain from certain actions. Organisations conducting terrorist activities are financed either legally or ille-
gally. The primarily legal source of funding is so-called state sponsorship.45
Another way to legally acquire resources is through the conduct of legitimate business or as a charity. For this purpose, whole networks of economic entities and foundations are created. A very effective legal form of gathering funds for terrorist activities is the wide-ranging financial collections conducted amongst sympathizers in different countries.
A very important role in the financing of political terrorism is played by organised criminal structures. The aim of the activities of criminal groups is primarily to make a profit, while the motives of terrorist groups are primarily political and religious. Many common elements can be noted in their actions. There is a kind of natural movement of people between the two groups.46 Common transport routes are used both for smuggling drugs and other criminal goods, and weapons and explosives
42 Dz. U. [Journal of Laws] 2000 No. 116, item 1216. 43 Dz. U. [Journal of Laws] 2004 No. 263, item 2620. 44 Mądrzejowski W, Przestępczość zorganizowana. System zwalczania. Warsaw, 2008,
pp. 80–81. 45 For example, the funding of Islamic terrorist organisations in Central Asia by Pakistan,
and of terrorist groups in Iraq by Iran. 46 This is particularly clearly visible in the examples of Chechnya, Kosovo and Turkey.
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for terrorists. The same routes are used to move those people who are subject to trafficking, as well as the members of terrorist organisations.
The greatest convergence in raising money from criminal activity is visible in the area of trafficking and the distribution of drugs. Without doubt, this results from the fact that the financial outlay is relatively low compared to the profits achieved.47 The money obtained from drug trafficking is used to maintain and arm terrorist organisations in Afghanistan and neighbouring countries.
Virtually all forms of organised criminal activity, including fraud, economic crime, humanitarian aid, extortion, car theft, kidnapping for ransom, human trafficking or crimes associated with the use of electronic payment are used for the financ- ing of terrorism. There have been many cases of direct cooperation between terrorist organisations with criminal structures, and even discrete units within terrorist groups involved in criminally acquiring resources through various means. The terrorist organisation has to raise funds from criminal activity if it does not have enough of these from other sources, e.g. the contributions from religious asso- ciations, sponsorship by fanatical businessmen or banks controlled by the states supporting terrorism.48
A phenomenon directly linked to the threat of organised crime and terrorism is carrying out money laundering, the various activities designed to hide the true source of illegal income, by such organisations. As described above, the financing of terrorism also includes funds obtained legally, but money laundering refers to funds obtained illegally, most often through crime. Therefore, for criminal groups it is essential to conceal the sources of funds, while for a terrorist organisation this applies not only to the source of these funds, but even more to their ultimate des- tination.
Public Support
The differences in the functioning of terrorist organisations and organised crime groups can be seen in the level of conspiracy regarding their own activities and their attitudes to the perception of the public. The nature of the activities of organised crime groups requires efforts to ensure complete secrecy, while assuming that there will be social condemnation of the functioning of the whole structure.49 Although with some exceptions (in relation to organisations of a mafia or cartel type which, apart from criminal activity, sometimes carry out social activities which may gain the approval of certain social groups in the local environment50), organised crime is universally condemned, in the case of terrorist organisations aiming to change the legal order, including separatist guerrilla movements, there is very often a high level of public support, and local communities often volunteer
47 Pływaczewski E, Wokół związków…, op. cit., p. 18. 48 Ibid. 49 Cichomski M, Madej K, Przenikanie się…, op. cit., p. 101. 50 For example, according to research, only 10% of the Japanese consider Yakuza
as a harmful organisation because, just like the traditional Italian mafia, in a tradition spanning over three hundred years it is portrayed as the defender of the poor, undertaking the role of an often inefficient state apparatus.
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logistic support facilitating the activities of specific organizations.51 The actions of terrorist organisations are then to gain publicity, and achievement of their objec- tives is not possible without the broad support of society.52 They seek to legitimise the system they believe in, and the initiatives taken contribute to gaining public support for certain of their ideas, including expanding the front in the battle for their cause, or professed philosophy, dissemination of a view of a martyred soci- ety on behalf of which the organization operates. This promotes the recruitment of new members to the organisation, and its positive reception increases assistance to victims or injured members of the terrorist organisation53 and to their families (e.g. in the case of suicide bombing attack).
It is important to note that the support decreases when physical or financial loads imposed on the community become excessive, the activity fails to produce the anticipated results,54 as well as in cases where methods are too radical for social acceptance to be possible.
Asymmetric Threats
The essence of the functioning of terrorist organisations and related radical environments is confrontation based on asymmetric actions — the confrontation is between two parties that are not equivalent in terms of available resources and fighting capability. In general, it can be said that terror is a tool and terror- ism is the ideology — in other words: the achievement of objectives through terror. However, for this to be so, terror must be the main, and often the only, tool to achieve political objectives, and — more importantly in the context studied — it must be the weaker party in an asymmetric conflict.55
Asymmetry is associated with both a disproportion in the potential of the par- ticipants in a conflict, as well as differences in methods, techniques and choice of targets to be attacked.56 The various strategies employed to attack a powerful enemy by circumventing its strong points and preventing it from effective use of defence assets (which can be achieved by transferring the conflict to another dimension — e.g. to cyberspace — and changing the rules of the game) are a typi- cal manifestation of asymmetry as seen today.57
The first issue that arises in the analysis of the phenomenon of organised crime, taking into account the concept of asymmetry, is proper definition of the conflict that takes place between the state and criminal organisations. Organised crime structures rarely opt for armed rivalry with countries, and in principle the threat
51 Cichomski M, Madej K, Analiza…, op. cit., p. 3. 52 Cichomski M, Madej K, Przenikanie się…, op. cit., pp. 101–102. 53 Raport o stanie bezpieczeństwa…, op. cit., p. 188. 54 Cichomski M, Madej K, Przenikanie się…, op. cit., pp. 101–102. 55 Jałoszyński K, Letkiewicz A, Edukacja antyterrorystyczna. Konieczność i obowiązek
naszych czasów, Szczytno, 2010, p. 3. 56 Madej M, Zagrożenia asymetryczne bezpieczeństwa państw obszaru transatlantyckie-
go, Warsaw, 2007. 57 Aleksandrowicz T, Sieć jako forma organizacji terrorystycznej [in:] Jemioło T, Kisielnicki J,
Rajchel K (Eds), Cyberterroryzm — nowe wyzwania XXI wieku. Warsaw, 2009, p. 271.
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posed by them to security is not direct. The economic nature of motivation which underlies the activity of criminal organisations excludes a conscious endeavor to totally destabilise the state, to significantly reduce the level of its security, or to destroy the structures of the state government. Confrontation between the state and criminal organiations, however, is a natural consequence of their opposing interests. Organised groups seeking to maximize profits from their illegal activities try, using all available means and measures, to reduce the effectiveness of state authorities in enforcing law, in order to prevent the prosecution of perpe- trators. Conversely, the State is interested in maintaining a monopoly on the use of coercion to employ it in the maintenance of public order and protection of its fiscal interests.58
It should be noted, however, that for example in South America, due to the type of weapons and training of members of criminal cartels operating there, some- times — as in the case of combating terrorist threats — not only public order agencies but also the military (e.g. in Mexico) are used to combat them.
Violence
Undoubtedly, a feature common to terrorism and organised crime is the use of violence to achieve desired objectives. Another common feature of both ter- rorist attacks and criminal terror is the induction of fear.59 And although violence is an essential hallmark of terrorism and criminal terror, in some cases, the threat of violence itself may be effective rather than its actual use (e.g. to minimise their visibility in the community60).
Terrorists use violence in their fight against their political opponents (authorities of the country, occupying forces, hostile political or religious groups) applying pres- sure by various means.61 The aim of the terrorists is not so much the use of violence itself, but exciting insecurity, uncertainty, anxiety and fear.62
Criminals sometimes direct violence against the apparatus of power and jus- tice, but criminal acts of criminal terror are committed principally for the purpose of acquiring assets and securing the group’s interests, including protection against competing criminal groups or the fight for spheres of influence. Violence or the direct threat of its use, which is a form of regular crime, is also used to enforce internal discipline,63 which promotes the desired hermetic characteristics of the group.64
Sometimes it is emphasized that violence is a means, and not an end in itself; it is a resource rather than a final product. A commodity which really matters in this
58 Kuzior P, Transgraniczna przestępczość zorganizowana — asymetryczne zagrożenie, Prawo Europejskie w praktyce, 2008, No 12(54). Electronic source: http://przestepczosczorga nizowana.pl/index.php?go=13, accessed: 29.07.2014.
59 Hoffman B, Oblicza…, op. cit., p. 82. 60 Kołakowska-Przełomiec H, Zapobieganie…, op. cit., p. 47. 61 Dietl W, Hirschmann K, Tophoven R, Terroryzm…, op. cit., p. 28. 62 Jałoszyński K, Zagrożenia terroryzmem w wybranych krajach Europy Zachodniej oraz
w Stanach Zjednoczonych. Warsaw, 2001, p. 9. 63 Cichomski M, Madej K, Przenikanie się…, op. cit., pp. 96–97. 64 Sifakis C, Mafia amerykańska…, op. cit., p. 25.
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case is the provision of protection. According to some researchers, there are people who are interested in purchasing the protection from organised criminal groups. Thus while some may be genuine victims of extortion, others are clients who are happy to pay.65
Methods
To achieve maximum profit organised crime groups use all available methods, operating within the fields of illegal goods and services, monopolisation of certain areas of economic activity, forced bankruptcies, credit and subsidy fraud, financial manipulation and corruption. To achieve their objectives, they resort to acts of ter- ror, employing drastic measures such as violence and intimidation,66 in particular those based on the use of firearms and explosives.
The use of the methods which exert pressure associated with terrorism, i.e. the detonation of bombs, the use of firearms and other weapons, the use of mur- der, violence, destruction — in this sense must be a something unmanageable, unexpected, unnatural, must shatter the social structure and order; it must display signs of brutality and fear, distress, horror, and it must be different from insurgency or guerrilla warfare.67
Terrorist organisations draw on both classical methods and means of criminal terror, but used on a much larger scale than in the case of organised crime groups (e.g. bomb attacks), and methods used exclusively by terrorists and calculated to result in the greatest possible number of victims, regardless of the probability of survival of the perpetrator (e.g. suicide attacks using an IED suicide vest68).69 A ter- rorist organisation considers it has the right to use all the available and most brutal methods (including weapons of mass destruction), assuming that — as the weaker party in a war being waged — only in this way can it defeat an opponent operating in accordance with the law and moral code.70
Presence in Cyberspace
Cybercrime and cyber-terrorism are flexible in nature and are subject to a process of continuous adaptation, in line with the development of modern
65 Gambetta D, The Sicilian Mafia: The Business of Private Protection [in:] Glenny M, McMafia. Zbrodnia nie zna granic. Warsaw, 2009, p. 469.
66 Sifakis C, Mafia…, op. cit., p. 26. 67 Dietl W, Hirschmann K, Tophoven R, Terroryzm…, op. cit., p. 28. 68 This case shows another difference between the activities of organised crime groups
and terrorist organisations: a motivation based on economic gain (as opposed to ideo- logical goals) does not logically permit the use of methods where it can be assumed that the perpetrator of the attack is either killed or has a minimal chance of survival in the course of the operation.
69 Cichomski M, Madej K, Przenikanie się…, op. cit., p. 99. 70 Hoffman B, Oblicza…, op. cit., p. 82.
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technologies.71 Cyberspace is an area of operation for both individual criminals or hackers, as well as organised crime groups and terrorist organisations. These often have an international character and a network structure with a relatively loose system of intra-group relations. One of their characteristics is elusiveness, because it is possible for the operations of the perpetrators of both criminal and terrorist activity to be carried out in a completely different location than that targeted.72
Cyberspace becomes the primary channel for the exchange of information; it has no borders or physical location. It is the fourth environment, along with sea, land and air, which forms the optimum area both for criminal and terrorist activities.73 The Internet facilitates illegal trafficking in weapons, explosives and the precursors for their production, in which both types of organised groups can be partners.74
When considering the involvement of organised crime groups in carrying out illicit activity in cyberspace, special emphasis should be placed on economic crime. As could be expected, there will be an increase in the threat of this form of crime in connection with the development of new technologies and, consequently, the e-services sector. The control system of banking or trading increasingly relies on the use of cyberspace, including deposits and withdrawals, transfers, financial analysis and forecasts, investment mandates and, above all, offers both addressed to ordinary clients and powerful investors.75
The ability to raise funds in cyberspace, which guarantees a relatively high degree of anonymity, is also of interest to terrorist organisations that can engage in this sort of activity — in a similar way as in the case of traditional forms of crime — through specialised organisational units, cooperation with criminal groups, or acquiring indi- vidual hackers/crackers. Besides, “it is now obvious that many members of the hacker community become cyber-terrorists and provide support for their actions”.76
Entities Combating Organised Crime and Terrorism
Referring to the prevention and combating of both terrorism and organised crime, it should be noted that the responsibility lies with many services and insti- tutions, most of which perform duties related to both types of crime. It should be noted that among the leading entities with particular responsibility for preventing and combating organised crime and terrorism in Poland are:
71 Cichomski M, Zubrzycki W, Cyberprzestrzeń jako potencjalny obszar przenikania się zorganizowanych grup przestępczych i organizacji terrorystycznych [in:] Hołyst B, Jałoszyń- ski K, Letkiewicz A, Wojna z terroryzmem w XXI wieku. Szczytno, 2009, p. 133.
72 Pomykała M, Instytucjonalno -prawne podstawy przeciwdziałania cyberterroryzmowi [in:] Jemioło T, Kisielnicki J, Rajchel K (Eds), Cyberterroryzm…, op. cit., p. 417.
73 Dudczyk J, Cyberterroryzm w aspekcie entropii informacji [in:] Jemioło T, Kisielnicki J, Rajchel K (Eds), Cyberterroryzm…, op. cit., p. 263.
74 Cichomski M, Zubrzycki W, Cyberprzestrzeń…, op. cit., p. 130. 75 Ibid., p. 129. 76 Koszut R, Zarys politycznego hakingu — od haktywizmu do cyberterroryzmu [in:]
Kosiński J (Ed.), Przestępczość teleinformatyczna. Materiały pokonferencyjne. Szczytno, 2007, p. 44.
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— within the framework of internal affairs: • Police; • Border Guard; • Ministry of the Interior;
— within the framework of finance: • General Inspector of Financial Information; • Customs Service;
— Public Prosecutor’s Office; — Internal Security Agency; — Foreign Intelligence Agency. With respect to the threat of terrorism, in addition to these services and insti-
tutions, an extremely important role is played by the military special services (the Military Intelligence Service and the Military Counterintelligence Service), Military Gendarmerie and Government Protection Bureau.77 However, in relation to the prevention and combating of organised crime great importance should be attributed to the role played by fiscal intelligence and the Central Anti-Corruption Bureau.78
Although, as has been already indicated, most of the services and institutions with responsibilities in the field of preventing and combating organised crime also carry out tasks in relation to the terrorist threat. It should be noted, however, that the nature of activities conducted against each of these types of criminality is a bit different. While in the case of terrorist threats the primary focus is on issues related to the identification and prevention of threats, and thus involves prior actions, in the case of organised crime the main role is combating the crime itself.
This difference is already noticeable at the level of the creation of the systems to prevent and combat the forms of crime described. In the case of the anti-terrorist system central roles are played by the Interministerial Team for Terrorist Threats as a body situated at a strategic level of the system, as well as by the Anti-Terror- ist Centre of Internal Security Agency, as the organisational unit responsible for the coordination and exchange of information between services and entities at the operational level. However, in the case of organised crime the leading roles are played by the public prosecutor’s office as an executory and supervisory body, as well as by the police as the operational body.79 With regard to the role of the prosecutor’s office this is due to the fact that in the course of individual cases,
77 It is easy to identify services and institutions leading in the field of identifying, prevent- ing and combating terrorist threats and neutralising the effects of possible attacks by looking at the composition of the Interministerial Team for Terrorist Threats, which forms the strategic level of the Polish anti-terrorist system.
78 The model adopted in Poland for preventing and combating organised crime is de- centralised in nature and, contrary to the anti-terrorist system, lacks a strategic level at which the lead decisions would be taken concerning the prevention and combat of organised crime in respect of all the services and institutions undertaking responsibilities in relation to this.
79 For this reason, the Interministerial Team for Organised Crime, abolished in 2008, which was an equivalent of the Interministerial Team for Terrorist Threats at the strategic level in the system for combating organised crime, acted under the leadership of the Minister for Justice.
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it may indicate another entity to carry out further action in the case than the one that undertook these activities. In addition, the prosecution may lead an investi- gatin on its own (own investigations) or pass to the relevant services for execution (investigation entrusted) the whole or a specified part or parts, or may delegate action on specific investigative steps.
The police, constituting the operational level (executory) in preventing and com- bating organised crime, have a specialised organisational unit for carrying out tasks in this field: the Central Investigation Office of the National Police Headquarters. It should be emphasised that the Police is the only organisation to perform the duties across all fields of this form of crime. The others of the above services and institutions are the appropriate bodies in relation to certain forms of organised crime. Some of them have specialised organisational units that operate in this field (such as the General Public Prosecutor’s Office and the National Security Agency). The actions of others are not directly focused on preventing and combating organised crime, but concern specific areas and methods of operations employed by organised groups and criminal organisations (e.g. GIFI in relation to preventing money laundering, and Central Anti-Corruption Bureau in respect of the crime of corruption).80
Common Legal Instruments
Polish legislator largely determines the basis of shared responsibility for both the types of crime under discussion not only from the perspective of organisational solutions, but also in terms of the legal basis for preventing and combating organ- ised crime and terrorism.81
The basis of liability in both cases is Article 258 of the Penal Code, according to which “whoever participates in an organised group or a criminal organisation having for its purpose commission of offences, including fiscal offences, shall be subject to the penalty of deprivation of liberty for a term of between 3 months and 5 years.” Paragraph 2 of the article quoted says that “In the event that the group or organisation specified in § 1 are armed or their purpose is to commit a crime of a terrorist nature, the perpetrator shall be subject to the penalty of the depriva- tion of liberty for a term of between 6 months and 8 years”, and in accordance with § 3 “Whoever sets up or leads a group or an organisation specified in § 1, including those that are of a military character, shall be subject to the penalty of the depri- vation of liberty of between one year and 10 years.” In contrast, § 4 of the article referred to is related to the crime of a terrorist nature: “Whoever sets up or leads or commands a group or an organisation intending to commit an act of a terrorist nature, shall be subject to the penalty of the deprivation of liberty for a minimum term of 3 years”.
The nature of the threats related to terrorism requires clarification, which is contained in Article 115 § 20 of the Penal Code defining an offence of a terrorist
80 Cichomski M, Madej K, Przenikanie się…, op. cit., pp. 92–94. 81 Ibid., pp. 94–95.
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nature: a prohibited act, subject to imprisonment with the upper limit of at least five years, committed in order to: seriously intimidate many persons, compel the public authority of the Republic of Poland or of another state or of the inter- national organisation to under take or abandon specif ic ac tions, cause serious disturbance to the constitutional system or to the economy of the Repub- lic of Poland, of the other state or international organisation, and a threat to commit such an act.
Conclusion
A relationship between terrorism and international organized crime was noted in the 1994 United Nations Development Programme. The report states that the spread of terrorism and organised crime is one of the main threats to national and international security.82 The scale of the potential threat is only now emerging; the formation of organised criminal structures is continuous and the organisational and technical progress is more rapid than that achieved within law enforcement. An active perpetrator, especially if holding an important position, is only found out in exceptional cases when using traditional methods.83
Apart from the differences and similarities between organised crime and terrorism, there can be observed a convergence of these two criminal envi- ronments (of course, the actual relationships are not the same in different parts of the world84). In recent years, one can observe new, previously unknown forms of cooperation between terrorist organisations and international criminal groups.85 It is difficult to determine the scale and scope of connections between terrorist groups and international organised crime because knowledge of the subject is not widespread. Their disclosure usually occurs in court while the criminal trial is ongoing. Only some of this information is distributed as part of social engineering in order to misinform terrorists, common criminals and society.
The convergence of the activities of organised crime groups and terrorist organi- sations results, on the one hand, from the search by terrorist organisations for more effective methods of obtaining material means from criminal organisations for con- ducting terrorist activities and, on the other hand, from the potential of obtaining funding from crime in order to carry out terrorist activities.86 This funding is used, amongst other things, to buy weapons and the other resources needed both to carry out attacks and their ongoing activities. The scale of these funds allows for the increasing professionalism of the perpetrators, high level of concealment
82 Pływaczewski E, Wokół związków…, op. cit., p. 14. 83 Electronic source: http://www.nauki-spoleczne.info/przestepczosc-zorganizowana,
accessed: 29.07.2014. 84 For example, in the Caucasus many leaders of local groups employing terrorist meth-
ods in connection with separatist aspirations were previously members of organised crime groups.
85 Completely new alliances between terrorist and criminals arose from the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, and the struggle by Russian troops against the terrorism in Chechnya and the Caucasus.
86 Cichomski M, Madej K, Analiza…, op. cit., p. 8.
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and the use of the latest technological developments. This indicates a further similarity of the two forms of group crime — they are both extremely difficult to combat.
References
1. Bierzanek R, Wojna a prawo międzynarodowe. Warsaw, 1982. 2. Dietl W, Hirschmann K, Tophoven R, Terroryzm. Warsaw, 2011. 3. Glenny M, McMafia. Zbrodnia nie zna granic. Warsaw, 2009. 4. Hoffman B, Oblicza terroryzmu. Warsaw, 1999. 5. Hołyst B, Jałoszyński K, Letkiewicz A, Wojna z terroryzmem w XXI wieku. Szczyt-
no, 2009. 6. Horgan J, Psychologia terroryzmu. Warsaw, 2008. 7. Jałoszyński K, Letkiewicz A, Edukacja antyterrorystyczna. Konieczność i obowią-
zek naszych czasów. Szczytno, 2010. 8. Jałoszyński K, Zagrożenia terroryzmem w wybranych krajach Europy Zachodniej
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giczne. Wrocław, 1984. 11. Kosiński J (Ed.), Przestępczość teleinformatyczna. Post-conference materials.
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70 Internal Security, July–December 2015
About the author
Waldemar Zubrzycki, PhD, retired major of the Polish Police, is an associate professor at the Police Academy in Szczytno, Poland. Field of scientific interest: counter-terrorism. Co r resp o n d e n ce: Police Academy in Szczytno, ul. Pilsudskiego 111, 12-100 Szczytno, Poland. E-mail: [email protected]
Streszczenie. Terroryzm to jedno z największych zagrożeń współczesnego świata, tak bezpieczeństwa wewnętrznego poszczególnych państw, jak też międzynarodowego. Od wielu lat następuje jednak eskalacja innego, równie niebezpiecznego zjawiska, jakim jest przestępczość zorganizowana. Złożyło się na to wiele czynników, między innymi upadek tzw. „bloku wschodniego”, czy też finansowa i społeczna globalizacja gospodarki. Obydwa te zagrożenia stanowią przejawy szczególnego rodzaju przestępczości grupowej, choć o wyraźnie odmiennym charakterze. Odrębne są podstawy ideologiczne prowadzonych w ich ramach działań, jak też cele, do jakich dążą ich przedstawiciele. Organizacje terrorystyczne wyznaczają sobie cele natury politycznej, ideowej albo religijnej. Pieniądze grają dla nich rolę pośrednią, nie są celem same w sobie, ale mają służyć osiągnięciu celów wyższych. Zorganizowane grupy przestępcze prowadzą swoją działalność wyłącznie po to, by osiągnąć zyski finansowe. Pomimo odrębności celów, jakimi różnią się działania zorganizowanej grupy przestępczej i organizacji terrorystycznej, obydwie kategorie odwołują się do aktów przemocy i terroru, wywołujących poczucie lęku jednostki lub grupy społecznej. Występują także obszary, na których dochodzi do ich wzajemnego współdziałania, a tendencja styku obydwu form przestępczości grupowej jest zauważalna na całym świecie. Obydwa typy organizacji wzajemnie czerpią ze swoich doświadczeń, a przestępczość zorganizowana może również stanowić jeden ze sposobów zdobywania funduszy na działalność terrorystyczną. W zakresie przeciwdziałania i zwalczania zarówno terroryzmu, jak i przestępczości zorganizowanej, wskazać należy na właściwość wielu służb i instytucji, z których większość realizuje zadania w odniesieniu do obu rodzajów przestępczości. Podobnie jest w przypadku podstaw prawnych, dotyczących tego typu działań. W dużym stopniu podstawy odpowiedzialności za obydwa rodzaje opisywanych przestępstw określane są na podstawie wspólnych regulacji.
Резюме. В современном мире терроризм является одним из самых серьезных угроз для мира. Хотя уровень терро- ристической угрозы в Польше оценивается как не очень высокий, существует ряд причин, которые могут привести к тому, что Республика Польша станет целью действий террористов. Главной задачей государства является обеспечение безопасности своих граждан, поэтому предпринимается множество инициатив, которые нацелены на предотвращение этой угрозы. Они касаются многих сфер деятельности, предпринимаемой в рамках системы, специально для этого созданной. Одним из способов борьбы с терроризмом является многоплановость проводимых действий, среди них систематическое сотрудничество субъектов, назначенных для этого. Их эффективность на уровне государства возрастает благодаря вовлечению институтов, входяших в состав различных ведомств. Кроме реализации основных зананий представляющие их эксперты сотрудничают в рамках специально созданных групп, как постоянных, так и временных. Самым главным из них в области борьбы с терроризмом является Межведомственная группа по делам террористической безопасности, заседания которой проходят регулярно. Перед другими группами были поставлены определенные задания, например, проверка и предложения усовершенствования правовых положений и организационных решений, касающихся противодействия терроризмы в Польше, или подготовки уста- новок к проекту так называемого «антитеррористического закона» и возможных проектов исполнительных актов. Межведомственные инициативы касаются также предупреждения нелегального распространения оружия массового поражения и террористических атак, предпринятых при использовании гражданских самолотов. Представители раз- личных ведомств принимают участие в работе Антитеррористического центра Агенства внутренней безопасноти в области обемена информацией, в работе правительственной группы по предупреждению и ликвидации чрезвы- чайных ситуаций, а также коллегии по делам спецслужб, в области программирования, надзора и координирования деятельности служб и соединений. У них есть возможность обмена информацией на тему мероприятий, связанных с противодействией и борьбой с терроризмом и с устранением последствий возможных атак, в рамках совместной польско-американской рабочей группы по делам борьбы с терроризмом.
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