Exam for human anatomy

UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

LEARNING OUTCOMES

1.1 Origins of Medical Science

1. Identify some of the early discoveries that lead to our current understanding of the

human body.

1.2 Anatomy and Physiology

2. Explain how anatomy and physiology are related.

1.3 Levels of Organization

3. List the levels of organization in the human body and the characteristics of each.

1.4 Common Themes in Anatomy and Physiology

4. List and describe the key concepts in anatomy and physiology.

5. List and describe the underlying mechanisms in anatomy & physiology.

1.5 Life and Maintenance of Life

6. List and describe the major characteristics of life.

7. Give examples of metabolism.

8. List and describe the major requirements of organisms.

9. Explain the importance of homeostasis to survival.

10. Describe the parts of a homeostatic mechanism and explain how they function

together.

1.6 Organization of the Human Body

11. Identify the locations of the major body cavities.

12. List the organs located in each major body cavity.

13. Name and identify the locations of the membranes associated with the thoracic

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UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

and abdominopelvic cavities.

14. Name the major organ systems, and list the organs associated with each. LEARNING OUTCOMES

15. Describe the general function of each organ system.

1.7 Life-Span Changes

16. Identify changes related to aging, from the microscopic to the whole-body level.

1.8 Anatomical Terminology

17. Properly use the terms that describe relative positions, body sections, and body regions.

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UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

1.1. ORIGINS OF MEDICAL SCIENCE

A. Study of anatomy and physiology is an ever-developing science with a long history.

1. See Fig 1.1, page 10 which dates back to 1543 AD.

B. Greek and Latin form the basis for the language of anatomy and physiology.

1.2 ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY:

A. ANATOMY = the study of the structure (morphology, form) of body parts.

B. PHYSIOLOGY = the study of the function of body parts.

C. These two sciences are closely related.

1. Every living organism’s structures’ are organized in a particular fashion, in order to carry out a specific function.

2. Structure determines function/ Anatomy determines physiology.

3. See Fig. 1.2, page 11.

D. Scientists use many tools to study anatomy. See Clinical Application 1.1, page 13: Ultrasonography and Magnetic Resonance Imaging: A Tale of Two Patients.

1.3. LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION:

See Fig 1.3, page 12, and Table 1.1, page 14.

A. Atom [i.e. Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), or Oxygen (O)]. An atom is defined as the smallest particle of an element, and they are composed of subatomic particles. Atoms combine with (react with) other atoms to form a…

B. molecule [i.e. molecular oxygen (O2), carbon dioxide (CO2), water (H20)]. A molecule is defined as a particle composed of 2 or more joined atoms. Molecules combine with other molecules to form a...

C. macromolecule (i.e. carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids). A macromolecule is defined as a large molecule. Macromolecules combine with other macromolecules to form an...

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UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

1.3. LEVELS OF ORGANIZATION (continued):

D. organelle (i.e. cell membrane, nucleus, ribosomes). An organelle is defined as a small organ of a cell, composed of two or more macromolecules, which performs a particular function. Organelles collectively compose a...

E. cell. The cell is defined as the basic unit of structure and function of living organisms!

Each cell has a set of organelles and performs a particular function (i.e. a red blood cell has a biconcave shape and is anucleate. This structure increases its surface area, allowing for the transport of more oxygen.

Some cells have all of the machinery that they need to live. See the amoeba, a single-celled organism in Fig 1.4, page 17.

Similar cells with some extracellular material are arranged into a...

F. tissue (i.e. epithelia, connective, muscle, nervous). A tissue is defined as a group of similar cells that performs a specialized function. Two or more tissues combine to form an...

G. organ (i.e. skin, heart, brain). An organ is defined as a structure consisting of a group of tissues that performs a specialized function. Two or more organs combine to form an...

H. organ system (i.e. integumentary, cardiovascular). An organ system is defined as a group of organs that act together to carry on a specialized function. The eleven organ systems collectively form the...

I. human organism. An organism is the most complex level of organization and is defined as an individual living thing.

1.4 COMMON THEMES IN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

A. Key Concepts – Unlocking Anatomy & Physiology: These concepts provide a foundation for understanding anatomy & physiology, and will be unified themes during our entire 24 chapter study of the human body.

1. The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in living things, 2. Cells live in the internal environment 3. Homeostasis is the maintenance of the internal environment. 4. Cells are interdependent upon one another. 5. Structure and Function are closely related.

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UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

1.4 COMMON THEMES IN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

B. Underlying Mechanisms and Processes – Foundations of Understanding: Maintenance of homeostasis involves these specific mechanisms.

1. Gradients: Most substances move from where they are in high concentration/pressure to where it’s lows. Permeability of cell membranes determines what substances enter and leave the cell.

2. Cellular Differentiation a. Gene leads to Proteins leads to function.

3. Cell Membrane Mechanisms determine what substances enter and leave the cell.

4. Cell-to-Cell Communication occurs via membrane receptors. 5. Feedback Loops: Negative feedback loops maintain most

homeostatic processes. 6, Balance of cellular water, electrolytes, and pH is of

ultimate importance in maintaining homeostasis. 7. Energy Processes are involved in all metabolic reactions.

1.5. LIFE AND THE MAINTENANCE OF LIFE

A. Ten processes: See Table 1.2, page 16.

1. Movement 2. Responsiveness 3. Growth 4. Reproduction 5. Respiration 6. Digestion 7. Absorption 8. Circulation 9. Assimilation 10. Excretion

B. Requirements of Organisms See Table 1.3, page 16.

1. Water for most metabolic reactions, lubrication, etc.

2. Food for energy

3. Oxygen for cellular respiration

4. Heat to maintain 37oC body temperature, enzyme action

5. Pressure for breathing and blood circulation

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UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

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UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

1.5. LIFE AND THE MAINTENANCE OF LIFE

C. Homeostasis See Fig 1.6, page 17.

1. Definition = the tendency of an organism to maintain a relatively stable internal environment despite external changes.

o This is done by keeping conditions in a homeostatic range compatible with life, near a “set point” value.

2. Most life processes and metabolic reactions work to maintain homeostasis.

3. Most homeostatic mechanisms are regulated by negative feedback (see example below), which bring conditions back toward set point.

4. Sometimes conditions are purposely moved away from the set point. This is called positive feedback. a. Examples include “fight-or-flight” and blood clotting discussed in

chapters 13 and 14, respectively.

5. All homeostatic mechanisms have three components in common.

a. Receptors – sense change in environment b. Control Center – regulates set point of variables c. Effectors – organs that acts in response to changes

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UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

1.5. LIFE AND THE MAINTANENCE OF LIFE

C. Homeostasis See Fig 1.7, page 18 and Fig 1.8, page 19.

6. Organ Systems contribute to homeostasis. See Fig 1.9, page 20. 7. See Appendix C, Laboratory Tests of Clinical Importance, pages 929-931. 8. Examples of positive feedback = blood clotting, “fight-or-flight” response.

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UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

1.6. ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY

A. Body Cavities:See Fig 1.10, page 21.

HUMAN BODY

AXIAL PORTION

APPENDICULAR PORTION

head

arms

neck

legs trunk

MAJOR CAVITIES

DORSAL CAVITY VENTRAL CAVITY

CRANIAL CAVITY THORACIC

CAVITY brain lungs

mediastinum: VERTEBRAL CANAL thymus

spinal cord heart

esophagus

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UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

trachea * Note that the diaphragm muscle separates the thoracic from abdominopelvic cavities.

ABDOMINOPELVIC CAVITY

ABDOMINAL CAVITY PELVIC CAVITY

liver urinary bladder gallbladder

internal reproductive stomach

organs spleen

small intestine large intestine

* Note that the kidneys, adrenal glands, pancreas, and ureters are behind the abdominopelvic cavity. This is referred to as RETROPERITONEAL.

* See Reference Plates One through Seven, pages 40-46, illustrating the above organs.

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UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

1.6 ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY

B. Cavities in the Head: See Fig. 1.11, page 22. 1. Oral cavity 2. Nasal cavity 3. Orbital cavities 4. Middle ear cavities 5. Paranasal sinuses (Frontal and Sphenoidal sinuses are pictured here)

C. Thoracic and Abdominopelvic Membranes

1. Serous Membrane = a soft, thin, pliable layer of tissue that either: a. covers a vital (visceral) organ = VISCERAL MEMBRANE or b. lines a body cavity = PARIETAL MEMBRANE.

2. There is a space between a visceral and parietal membrane into which SEROUS fluid is secreted for lubrication.

3. There are specific names for the membranes around the heart, lungs, and abdominal organs:

a. Serous Membranes of the LUNGS: See Fig 1.12, page 23.

o The membrane that covers the lung is called visceral pleura. o The membrane that lines the thoracic cavity is called parietal

pleura. o The space between these two membranes is called the pleural

cavity, and it is filled with serous fluid.

b. Serous Membranes of the HEART: See Fig 1.12, page 23.

o The membrane that covers the heart is called visceral pericardium.

o The membrane that lines the pericardial cavity is called parietal pericardium.

o The space between these two membranes is called the pericardial cavity, and it is filled with serous fluid.

c. Serous Membranes of the ABDOMINAL ORGANS: See Fig 1.13, page 23. o The membrane that covers the liver, stomach, etc. is called

visceral peritoneum. o The membrane that lines the abdominal cavity is called

parietal peritoneum. o The space between these membranes and between the

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UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

organs and abdominopelvic wall is called the peritoneal cavity, and it is filled with serous fluid.

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UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

1.6 ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY (Keyed at the end of this outline) D. Organ Systems: See Table 1.4, page 27 and Figures on pages 24-28 in textbook.

SYSTEM NAME MAJOR ORGANS IN SYSTEM FUNCTION(S)

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UNIT 1- CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

SYSTEM NAME MAJOR ORGANS IN SYSTEM FUNCTION(S)

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1.7 LIFE-SPAN CHANGES

A. Aging is the process of becoming mature or old.

B. Aging occurs from the microscopic to whole-body level.

1. Programmed cell death begins in the fetus, although is not apparent until later decades. Examples of aging include the following:

a. 3rd decade: gray hairs, faint facial lines, minor joint stiffness b. 4th decade: maternal age significant in chromosomal disorders of offspring, hair and facial changes continue

c. 5th decade: hair color fades, facial wrinkles appear, hypertension, hypercholesteremia, heart disease, and Type II diabetes may appear

d. 6th decade: waning immunity may require immunizations against influenza, pneumonia, and other infectious diseases

e. 7th decade: continuation of above and….

2. Changes at tissue level explain familiar signs of aging.

a. decreased production of collagen and elastin – stiffening of skin b. diminished levels of subcutaneous fat –wrinkling

c. fat to water proportions change in tissues – altered drug metabolism in elderly

3. Changes at cell level occurs.

a. impaired cell division – reduced wound healing b. inappropriate cell division – cancers c. repair of damaged DNA declines – cancers d. reduced energy extraction from nutrients e. reduced breakdown of worn cell parts

f. damaging oxygen free radical increase - lipofuscin and ceroid pigments accumulation g. accumulation of a protein called amyloid may occur in the brain and lead to Alzheimer’s disease in some individuals h. generalized metabolic slowdown- diminished tolerance to cold, weight gain, and fatigue

4. Due to the above changes at the molecular, cellular, and tissue levels, consequently the effects of aging occur at the organ and organ system level, as well.

1.8 ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY

A. Definition = a language used to describe the relative position of body parts; needed for communication.

B. Anatomical Position = standing erect, face forward, upper limbs at sides, and palms forward. See Fig 1.21, page 30.

C. Relative Position: See Fig 1.21, page 30.

1. Superior = above; Inferior = below 2. Anterior = front; Posterior = back 3. Ventral = front; Dorsal = back 4. Medial = center; Lateral = side 5. Ipsilateral = same side; Contralateral = opposite side 6. Proximal = closer to trunk; Distal = farther from trunk 7. Superficial/peripheral = surface; Deep = internal

D. Body Sections (cuts, planes)

See Fig 1.22 and Fig 1.23, page 31.

1. Sagittal cut: divides body/organ into right and left portions.

a. midsagittal (median) = equal right and left portions.

Also see Human Cadaver Plates Eight -Twelve, pages 47-50.

2. Transverse Cut (or horizontal): divides body/organ into superior and inferior portions.

Also see Human Cadaver Plates Thirteen – Twenty, pages 51-54. .

3. Coronal Cut (or frontal): divides body/organ into anterior and posterior portions.

Also see Human Cadaver Plates Twenty-One through Twenty-Five, pages 55-58.

E. Sections/Cuts of Cylindrical Structures (i.e. blood vessels, nerves, etc.) See Fig 1.24, page 32. 1. Cross-section: cut at 90 degrees to longitudinal axis of structure

2. Oblique section: cut at angle across an object

3. Longitudinal section: cut along longitudinal axis of structure

1.8 ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY (Keyed at the end of this outline)

F. Body Regions See Fig 1.25a, page 32.

1. Abdominal regions

Abdominal regions

2. Abdominal Quadrants: See Fig 1.25b, page 32.

Abdominal Quadrants:

1.8 ANATOMICAL TERMINOLOGY G. Surface Anatomy (Landmarks): See Fig 1.26, page 34.

1. Anterior Landmarks: Above the Waist Below the Waist cephalic=head inguinal=groin frontal=forehead coxal=hip orbital=eye genital=reproductive organs otic=ear femoral=thigh nasal=nose patellar=knee cap oral=mouth sural=calf buccal=cheek tarsal=ankle, instep mental=chin pedal = foot cervical=neck digital=toe acromial = shoulder axillary=armpit brachial=upper arm antecubital=anterior elbow antebrachial=forearm carpal=wrist metacarpal=hand palmar = palm digital=finger mammary=breast sternal = breast bone pectoral = chest

umbilical=navel abdominal = abdomen

2. Posterior Landmarks Above the Waist Below the Waist

occipital= base of skull sacral=between hips acromial=shoulder gluteal=buttocks vertebral=spinal column perineal=between anus & other

openings dorsum=back popliteal=back of knee cubital=elbow plantar=sole lumbar=loin calcaneal=heel OTHER INTERESTING TOPICS: A. THE WHOLE PICTURE. See page 9. B. CAREER CORNER: Emergency Medical Technician. See page 11. C. A Glimpse Ahead: Cell-To-Cell Communication between nervous and endocrine systems

in synaptic transmission, page 25. D. Some Medical and Applied Sciences, pages 33-34. CHAPTER ASSESSMENTS – see page 35. INTEGRATIVE ASSESSMENTS/CRITICAL THINKING – see page 36.

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CHAPTER SUMMARY – see pages 36-38.

SYSTEM NAME MAJOR ORGANS IN SYSTEM FUNCTION(S)

INTEGUMENTARY Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, sebaceous glands

protection, regulation of body temperature, synthesis of Vitamin D, etc.

SKELETAL Bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilages

support, protection, movement, Ca++ store, hematopoiesis

MUSCULAR Skeletal Muscles movement, heat production, etc

NERVOUS Brain, spinal cord, nerves coordination of body parts; information processing

ENDOCRINE Endocrine Glands that secrete hormones

maintenance of homeostasis. Fight-or- flight, fluid and electrolyte balance

CARDIOVASCULAR Heart, blood vessels transport of nutrients, wastes, O2 and CO2 electrolyte maintenance,

LYMPHATIC Bone marrow, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen

Control disease, etc

RESPIRATORY nose, nasal cavity, sinuses, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchial tubes within lungs, alveoli

exchange of gases (O2 and CO2), maintenance of blood pH and electrolytes; voice production

URINARY kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra

Excretion (removal of metabolic wastes from blood), maintenance of blood (i.e. pH, pressure, etc.), maintenance of electrolytes

DIGESTIVE Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestine, salivary glands, liver, pancreas, gall bladder

breakdown of food into substances that can be absorbed (for energy)

REPRODUCTIVE male: testes, epididymis, vas deferens, prostate, seminal vesicle, bulbourethral glands, urethra, penis, scrotum

production, maintenance and transport of gametes; production of sex hormones

female: ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, vagina, labia, clitoris

Female: house developing embryo/fetus

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Abdominopelvic Areas

Nine Regions:

RIGHT HYPOCHONDRIAC REGION

EPIGASTRIC REGION

LEFT HYPOCHONDRIAC REGION

RIGHT LUMBAR REGION

UMBILICAL REGION

LEFT LUMBAR REGION

RIGHT ILIAC REGION

HYPOGASTRIC REGION

LEFT ILIAC REGION

Four Quadrants:

RIGHT UPPER QUADRANT

LEFT UPPER QUADRANT

RIGHT LOWER QUADRANT

LEFT LOWER QUADRANT

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