Exam for human anatomy

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Chapter 01 Lecture Outline See separate PowerPoint slides for all figures and

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Figure 1.1 Origins of Medical Science Early healers depended on superstition and magic.

Followed by observations of injuries, wound healing, and dead bodies.

This evolved into experimentation and creation of new terminology for anatomy & physiology.

Finally, study of corpses and cadaver dissection brought new knowledge of the human body.

Figure 1.2 Anatomy & Physiology Anatomy: The study of the structure/morphology of the human body and its parts; derived from Greek for “a cutting up”

Physiology: The study of the functions of the human body and its parts; derived from Greek for “relationship to nature”

The structure of organs and parts of the human body determines the function.

Levels of Organization All materials, living or non-living, are composed of chemicals, which consist of atoms.

Subatomic Particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons that make up cells

Atom: tiny particles that make up chemicals (hydrogen, carbon)

Molecule: particles consisting of atoms joined together (water, glucose)

Macromolecule: large particles consisting of molecules (D N A, protein)

Organelle: functional part of a cell (mitochondrion, lysosome)

Cell: basic unit of structure and functions (muscle, nerve, or blood cell)

Tissue: layer or mass of cells with specific function (adipose tissue)

Organ: group of different tissues with a function (heart, kidney, stomach)

Organ System: group of organs with common function (digestive system)

Organism: composed of organ systems interacting (human)

Figure 1.3 Levels of Organization

Clinical Application 1.1 Noninvasive procedures that provide images of internal structures: • Ultrasound (U S): High-frequency sound waves that provide

images of soft internal structures; used to obtain sonogram of fetus in the uterus.

• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (M R I): Magnetic field changes alignment and spin of certain types of atoms; provides high- resolution images of internal structures, such as the brain.

Table 1.2 Characteristics of Life

Process Examples Process Examples

Movement Change in position of the body or of a body part; motion of an internal organ

Digestion Breakdown of food substances into simpler forms that can be absorbed and used

Responsiveness Reaction to a change inside or outside the body

Absorption Passage of substances through membranes and into body fluids

Growth Increase in body size without change in shape

Circulation Movement of substances in body fluids

Reproduction Production of new organisms and new cells

Assimilation Changing of absorbed substances into different chemical forms

Respiration Obtaining oxygen, removing carbon dioxide, and releasing energy from foods (some forms of life do not use oxygen in respiration)

Excretion Removal of wastes produced by metabolic reactions

The events inside the body which obtain, release, and utilize energy are the main part of metabolism (all of the chemical reactions in an organism that support life).

Maintenance of Life Life requires / depends on 5 environmental factors:

Water: • most abundant substance in body. • environment for metabolic processes. • required for transport of substances. • regulation of body temperature.

Food: • provides necessary nutrients. • supplies energy. • supplies raw materials for building living tissue.

Requirements of Organisms Oxygen (gas): • one-fifth of air. • used to release energy from nutrients.

Heat:

• heat is a form of energy in our environment. • helps maintain body temperature. • partly controls rate of metabolic reactions.

Pressure:

• application of force on an object. • atmospheric pressure – important for breathing. • hydrostatic pressure – keeps blood flowing.

Homeostasis Homeostasis: Maintenance of a stable internal environment

Homeostatic Mechanisms: Self-regulating systems that monitor aspects of the internal environment and correct them as needed.

There are 3 parts of a homeostatic mechanism:

Receptor: detects and provides information about the stimuli

Control Center: decision-maker that maintains the set point

Effector: muscle or gland that responds to the control center, and causes the necessary change in the internal environment

Figure 1.6 Homeostatic Mechanisms

Figure 1.7 Negative Feedback Example of negative homeostatic mechanisms:

Figure 1.8 Positive Feedback Example of positive homeostatic mechanisms:

Homeostatic Mechanisms 1 Negative feedback:

Most common type of homeostatic mechanism

Effectors return conditions toward normal range, and the deviation from set point lessens

Called “negative” because the response to the change moves the variable in the opposite direction of the deviation from the set point

Prevents sudden, severe changes in the body

Examples: negative feedback controls body temperature, blood pressure & glucose level in the blood

Homeostatic Mechanisms 2 Positive feedback:

Uncommon in the body

The change/deviation is intensified, instead of reversed

Activity of effector is increased initially, instead of decreasing

Short-lived

Produce unstable conditions, that seem like they will not lead to homeostasis, but they will.

Examples: blood clotting and the uterine contractions of childbirth

Organization of the Human Body Human body consists of 2 main portions: Axial portion: head, neck, and trunk Appendicular portion: upper and lower limbs

Major cavities of the axial portion of the body: Cranial cavity: houses brain Vertebral canal (spinal cavity): contains spinal cord Thoracic cavity: houses lungs and thoracic viscera Abdominopelvic cavity: contains abdominal and pelvic viscera

Major Body Cavities Diaphragm: muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities Mediastinum: region between lungs in thoracic cavity, which contains heart, esophagus, trachea, thymus gland

Abdominopelvic cavity contains 2 portions:

1. Abdominal cavity: extends from diaphragm to top of pelvis, and contains stomach, liver, spleen, kidneys small intestine, most of large intestine

2. Pelvic cavity: enclosed by pelvic bones, and contains end of large intestine, urinary bladder, internal reproductive organs

Figure 1.10 Major Body Cavities

Figure 1.11 Small Cavities of the Head Small cavities of the head: Oral cavity Nasal cavity Orbital cavities Middle ear cavities

Thoracic and Abdominopelvic Membranes The thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities are lined by double- layered serous membranes, which secrete serous fluid (slippery fluid that prevents friction between layers). Serous membranes consist of 2 layers: Visceral layer: inner layer, which covers an organ Parietal layer: outer layer, which lines wall of cavity

Examples of serous membranes: Visceral and parietal pleura (around lungs in thorax) Visceral and parietal pericardium (around heart in thorax) Visceral and parietal peritoneum (around abdominopelvic organs)

Figures 1.12 and 1.13 Serous Membranes

Serous membranes of the thoracic cavity

Serous membranes of the abdominal cavity

Figures 1.14 and 1.15 Organ Systems Integumentary System:

Protection, body temperature regulation, sensory reception, production of Vitamin D

Skeletal System:

Framework, protection, attachment sites, storage of inorganic salts, production of blood cells, support and movement

Muscular System:

Movement, main source of body heat, maintenance of posture.

Figure 1.16 Organ Systems Nervous and Endocrine Systems:

Integration and coordination of organ function through nerve impulses or hormones

Figure 1.17 Organ Systems

Cardiovascular System: Transportation of gases, nutrients, blood cells and wastes

Lymphatic System:

Transportation of fluids, lymphocyte production, body defense

Figure 1.18 Organ Systems Digestive System: Receives food, breaks down food, excretes waste

Respiratory System: Exchange of gases

Urinary System: Removes blood wastes, regulates electrolyte & water balance, blood pressure

Figure 1.19 Organ Systems

Reproductive System: Male and female systems produce and transport sex cells. Female also provides fetal development and childbirth.

Table 1.4 Organ Systems Organ System Major Organs Major Functions Integumentary Skin, hair, nails, sweat glands, sebaceous glands Protect tissues, regulate body temperature, support

sensory receptors

Skeletal Bones, ligaments, cartilages Provide framework, protect soft tissues, provide attachments for muscles, produce blood cells, store inorganic salts

Muscular Muscles Cause movements, maintain posture, produce body heat

Nervous Brain, spinal cord, nerves, sense organs Detect changes, receive and interpret sensory information, stimulate muscles and glands

Endocrine Glands that secrete hormones (pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, testes, pineal gland, and thymus)

Control metabolic activities of body structures

Cardiovascular Heart, arteries, capillaries, veins Move blood through blood vessels and transport substances throughout body

Lymphatic Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen Return tissue fluid to the blood, carry certain absorbed food molecules, defend the body against infection

Digestive Mouth, tongue, teeth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, liver, gallbladder, pancreas, small and large intestines

Receive, break down, and absorb food; eliminate unabsorbed material

Respiratory Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs Intake and output of air, exchange of gases between air and blood

Urinary Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra Remove wastes from blood, maintain water and electrolyte balance, store and eliminate urine

Reproductive Male: scrotum, testes, epididymides, ductus deferentia, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, bulbourethral glands, urethra, penis Female: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, clitoris, vulva

Produce and maintain sperm cells, transfer sperm cells into female reproductive tract Produce and maintain egg cells, receive sperm cells, support development of an embryo, and function in birth process

Lifespan Changes Aging occurs from the microscopic to the whole-body level. These are some of the changes that occur with aging:

Hair loses pigment, becomes gray or white Skin wrinkles due to decrease in subcutaneous fat Skin stiffens due to decrease in collagen and elastin Percentage of fats in the tissues increases Elevated blood pressure may become hypertension Elevated blood glucose may become type 2 diabetes mellitus Tissues atrophy and organs shrink Cells reach end of ability to undergo cell division, as they lose tips of chromosomes Metabolic rate decreases Decreased production of enzymes and other proteins Some will develop dementia / Alzheimer disease

Figure 1.20 Anatomical Terminology Anatomical Position: Standing erect, facing forward, upper limbs at the sides, palms facing forward

Anatomical terms of relative position are based on a person standing in anatomical position.

Terms of Relative Position Superior (above) / Inferior (below)

Anterior or ventral (toward the front) / Posterior or dorsal (toward the back)

Medial (toward the midline) / Lateral (away from midline)

Bilateral (paired structures; on both sides)

Ipsilateral (same side) / Contralateral (opposite sides)

Proximal (close to point of attachment to trunk) / Distal (farther from point of attachment to trunk)

Superficial (close to body surface) / Deep (more internal)

Figure 1.21 Terms of Relative Position

Body Sections or Planes Sagittal section: longitudinal cut that divides body into left and right portions

Mid-sagittal/Median section: divides body into equal left and right portions

Parasagittal section: sagittal section lateral to midline; divides body into unequal left and right portions

Transverse or Horizontal section: divides body into superior and inferior portions

Coronal or Frontal section: longitudinal cut that divides body into anterior and posterior portions

Figure 1.22 Body Sections

Figure 1.23 Body Sections: The Brain

Sagittal Section Transverse Section Frontal section

Figure 1.24 Body Sections in Cylindrical Organs

These sections are found in organs such as blood vessels, the ureter, the trachea, or the intestines.

Figure 1.25 Body Regions and Quadrants

Abdominal Regions Abdominal Quadrants

Slide 1
Figure 1.1 Origins of Medical Science
Figure 1.2 Anatomy & Physiology
Levels of Organization
Figure 1.3 Levels of Organization
Clinical Application 1.1
Table 1.2 Characteristics of Life
Maintenance of Life
Requirements of Organisms
Homeostasis
Figure 1.6 Homeostatic Mechanisms
Figure 1.7 Negative Feedback
Figure 1.8 Positive Feedback
Homeostatic Mechanisms 1
Homeostatic Mechanisms 2
Organization of the Human Body
Major Body Cavities
Figure 1.10 Major Body Cavities
Figure 1.11 Small Cavities of the Head
Thoracic and Abdominopelvic Membranes
Figures 1.12 and 1.13 Serous Membranes
Figures 1.14 and 1.15 Organ Systems
Figure 1.16 Organ Systems
Figure 1.17 Organ Systems
Figure 1.18 Organ Systems
Figure 1.19 Organ Systems
Table 1.4 Organ Systems
Lifespan Changes
Figure 1.20 Anatomical Terminology
Terms of Relative Position
Figure 1.21 Terms of Relative Position
Body Sections or Planes
Figure 1.22 Body Sections
Figure 1.23 Body Sections: The Brain
Figure 1.24 Body Sections in Cylindrical Organs
Figure 1.25 Body Regions and Quadrants