Final Take exam.
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Session6andSession7.pptxResults-Based Management
Session 6 and Session 7 Teams and Groups
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Why are Work Teams on the Rise?
During the past decade, the use of teams in organizations has increased dramatically.
In today’s hyper-competitive environment, “old” organizational structures can be too slow, too unresponsive and too expensive to be competitive.
Work teams can yield quality, productivity and cost improvements.
Workers can benefit from increased autonomy and empowerment.
Prepared by the Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology - SIOP
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What is a “Work Team”?
There are many definitions, however, most have three common elements (used by academics and practitioners):
1. More than 2 people
2. One or more tasks to perform
The team produces some outcome for which members have collective responsibility
3. . An interdependent, intact social system
Members are dependent upon one another for some shared purpose
As stated by SIOP
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Work Team?
Which of the following are work teams?
Students living on the same dorm floor
Students taking the same management class
Students working on a research paper
Students on a committee charged with making recommendations to curb binge drinking
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Team Taxonomies (Types of Teams)
There are multiple taxonomies of work teams.
These taxonomies attempt to classify different types of teams based upon their function in the organization.
To some extent all of these team taxonomies are “reinventing the wheel.”
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Examples of Work-Related Teams
Functional
Members work together daily on similar tasks and must coordinate their efforts
Problem Solving
Members focus on a specific issue, develop potential solution, and often are empowered to take action
Cross-Functional
Members from various work areas who identify and solve mutual problems
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Types of Work-Related Teams Cont.
Self-Managed
Highly interdependent and empowered members who must work together effectively daily to manufacture an entire product (or major identifiable component) or provide an entire service to a set of customers.
Virtual
Members who collaborate through various information technologies on one or more tasks while located at two or more locations.
Global
Members from a variety of countries who are, therefore, often separated significantly by time, distance, culture, and native language.
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Various Types of Teams
Potential Team Dysfunctions
Groupthink
(illusion of invulnerability, direct pressure to suppress dissent, self-censorship, shared illusion of unanimity) (Note: Groupthink is discussed to a much greater degree later in the lecture!)
Free-riding/Social-loafing/Sucker Effect
Absence of Trust
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Your Team Experiences
What has been your best team experience?
What contributed to it being the best?
What has been your worst team experience?
What contributed to it being the worst?
Break into Groups
Put together ten ideas for why some groups were great and others were not.
Design a training program to help a manager acquire the talent to run the best teams.
What skills do managers need to make their teams work and what is the best way to acquire these skills.
Characteristics of Effective Groups/Teams
Members know why the group exists and have shared goals.
Members support agreed upon decision-making guidelines or procedures.
Members communicate freely among themselves.
Members help each other.
Members deal with intra-group conflict.
Members diagnose and improve individual and group processes and functioning
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Context
Goals
Team
Effectiveness
Size
Member Roles and Diversity
Norms
Cohesiveness
Leadership
Influences on Team Effectiveness
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Context (AKA alignment)
Technology
Values of Members
Working Conditions
Management Practices and Strategies
Formal Organizational Rules
Organizational Rewards (and Punishments)
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Goals
Team Goalsoals
Outcomes desired by the team as a whole, not just goals of the individual members
Compatible and conflicting goals often exist within a team
Superordinate goals are likely to have a greater impact if they are accompanied by superordinate rewards
Superordinate goals are ones that two or more individuals, teams, or groups might pursue but which can’t be achieved without their cooperation.
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How Large Should A Group Be?
Benefits of Small Groups
Regular interaction
Ease of sharing information
Recognition of individual contributions to group
Strong identification with group
Higher group satisfaction
Benefits of Large Groups
More resources
Division of labor
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Group Composition
Benefits of Homogeneous groups
Collegiality amongst group members
Information sharing
Low levels of conflict
Few coordination problems
Benefits of Heterogeneous groups
Diversity of views represented
High performance
Variety of resources
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Low cohesiveness: Information flows slowly; group has little influence; group tends not to achieve its goals
Moderate cohesiveness: Group members work well together; there is good communication and participation; group is able to influence its members’ behavior; group tends to achieve its goals
Very high cohesiveness: Group members socialize excessively; high level of conformity; group achieves its goals at expense of other groups
Signs of Cohesiveness
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Leadership in Teams
Emergent (or informal) leaders are important in determining whether a team accomplishes its goals. An informal leader is an individual whose influence in a team grows over time and usually reflects a unique ability to help the team reach its goals.
Multiple leaders may exist in a team because it has both relations-oriented and task-oriented goals.
Effective team leaders influence virtually all the other factors that affect team behaviors (e.g., size, member roles and diversity, norms, goals, and context).
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Are Work Teams Always the Answer?
The short answer - no!
Many organizations are jumping on the “teams bandwagon.”
Organizations should ask themselves:
Do people need to work together to get the task done effectively?
Is expertise limited to a few people?
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Team Effectiveness
Performance
Quality/Quantity/Timeliness
Membership Satisfaction
The ability to work together…again
Team Learning
Acquire new KSAs; Personal growth and well-being
Outside Satisfaction
Meeting the needs of stockholders
Why Do Work Teams Fail?
Anecdotal evidence indicates that teams “work” only about half the time. Why?
Inappropriate use of teams.
Lack of support from organizational leaders.
Lack of good information.
Lack of team member skills.
A work team’s success can be impacted as much by what is happening “outside” the team as it is by what is happening “inside.”
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Test Your Styles
Team Cognitive
Style Activity
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Personality Types Used in the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Assessment
Personality Types Used in the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator Assessment (concluded)
SF
Social
Friendly
Seek to build good relations among members
Concern for people
Focus on facts
Handle problems with warmth/empathy
IMPLEMENTATION focus and practical orientation (“Whatever works”)
NT
Theoretical (“faculty meeting”)
Complex solutions
Concentrating on DEFINING the problem(s), the goal(s), the client(s)
Analytic/abstract
Often complicated procedures
Messy process with little consensus
ST
Problem focus
Set up leadership and formal structure
Work fast
DEFINE solutions (not processes)
Concentrate on routines and systems
Procedures important
Task orientation (“Get the job done”)
NF
Emphasis on decentralized, equality-oriented humanistic organization; moral concerns with a “people orientation”
IDEALISTIC (“senses the existence of [deep] problem”)
Team Processes Questions
Organizational Context:
Have goals and tasks been clearly identified?
Are team members rewarded for individual rather than team performance?
Has management granted the team enough autonomy to accomplish the task?
Does the team have access to the information and resources needed to perform the task?
Team Processes Questions
Task and Maintenance Functions:
Do team members make suggestions as to the best way to proceed?
Do members give or ask for information, opinions, feelings, and feedback, or indicate that they are searching for alternatives?
How is the team kept on target?
Team Processes Questions
Task and Maintenance Functions:
Are all ideas presented given adequate discussion before evaluation begins?
Does the team summarize what has been covered? Does the team review who is responsible for doing what,
when the team member inputs are dues, or when the team will meet again?
Are all team members encouraged to enter the discussion?
Team Processes Questions
Task and Maintenance Functions:
Are attempts made by any team members to help others clarify their ideas?
Are team members careful to reject ideas and not people?
Are conflicts among members ignored or addressed in some way?
Are team members treated respectfully?
If a team member is insulted or put down, do other members step in to help?
Team Processes Questions
Decision Making:
Does the team move too quickly toward one solution?
Does the team encourage minority opinion?
Which form of decision making does the team use: consensus, consultative, or leader decides?
Can the team change its form of decision making if circumstances warrant a change?
Team Processes Questions
Communication:
Who are the most frequent participators?
Who are the least frequent participators?
Who talks to whom?
How are noisy or silent members handled?
Are team members with the requisite information contributing?
Team Processes Questions
Influence:
Who has the most impact on the team’s actions and decisions?
Whose ideas are ignored?
What tactics to members use to influence one another?
Is there rivalry in the team?
Does a formal/informal leader exist?
Team Processes Questions
Conflict:
How often do members disagree? Is this conflict useful?
To what extent do people take the arguments in the team personally? How can this conflict be managed?
How often do members get angry with one another while working?
Do team members feel free to disagree?
Team Processes Questions
Atmosphere:
Are people friendly and open or formal with each other?
Are people involved and interested?
Is there an atmosphere of work? Play? Competition?
Are people in constant conflict or disagreement?
Do people feel safe enough to take interpersonal risks?
The way in which a team handles interactions with those outside its boundary.
Boundary Management
Model of Team Effectiveness
Context
Team Operations
Effectiveness
Organizational Structure
Team Design
Rewards
Internal Team Processes
Boundary Management
Performance
Member Satisfaction
Team Learning
Outsider Satisfaction
In today’s business structure, in order to be successful, you need to manage the external environment.
Boundary Management
Stars to the slides
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Teams need to have deep connections both inside (internally) and outside (externally) the company.
Function of Teams
Influence
Task Coordination
Information
Various Interfaces Teams Face
Vertical (“manage up”)
Need ambassadorial activities:
Work the power structure
Effective marketing
Building and maintaining a good reputation
Influence
Lateral connections across functions and managing a team’s work interdependence with other units.
Task Coordination
Liaison works laterally to bring information from marketing, technologies, and competition together for the team.
Information
Short Term - Isolated and ambassadorial teams fare best.
Pros:
Don’t have to deal with external world.
Teams can come together, set goals, and agree on procedures.
Cons:
The rest of the organization is not involved.
Team Effectiveness
Long Term – Comprehensive strategy works best.
Pros:
Balance internal performance with external demands.
Gather information needed but do not get stuck in research.
Over time teams become stronger.
Team Effectiveness
Managing beyond your borders is an important step. It’s important that teams are taught to move past perceived notions that team building is limited to setting goals and priorities and getting to know each other. It is crucial to work with management and other parts of the organization.
Moving Outward
Steps:
Educate team members about the importance of boundary activity.
Teams members need to organize themselves to carry out a comprehensive strategy.
- must decide how to allocate the work of managing all liaisons.
- balance is required between too little and too much interaction with external sources.
Moving Outward
Strategic – team members need to analyze those providing inputs and accepting outputs from the team in order to improve efficiency and effectiveness.
Political – need to identify the key “stakeholders” external to the team.
Cultural – artifacts, norms, values, and assumptions of the organization in which the team resides, as well as the overall societal view of teams in general.
Analyzing and Managing the External Environment Using the Three Lenses
External boundary activity is crucial to achieve positive team performance. The dimensions of influence, task coordination, and information improve efficiency of gathering inputs and exporting outputs and allow for proper implementation of the three lenses; strategic, political, and cultural.
Wrap-Up
Group Presentation
Reading #12
Barriers and Gateways to Management Cooperation and Teamwork
Your Team Experiences
What has been your best team experience?
What contributed to it being the best?
What has been your worst team experience?
What contributed to it being the worst?
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Break into Groups
Put together ten ideas for why some groups were great and others were not.
Design a training program to help managers acquire the talent to run the best teams.
What skills do managers need to make their teams work and what is the best way to acquire these skills.
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Go to Saving A Key Account Exercise and Debrief
Saving a Key Account
This is an exercise designed to prove the teams outperform individuals. In this scenario, you have an immediate problem with the customer that must be fixed.
Read the instructions individually
Take 15 minutes to go through and rank order the steps in the process that need to be taken to fix this problem and to prevent it from reoccurring.
Saving a key account (cont.)
Once the task is completed individually, try to find four other individuals and try to go through the process again coming up with a team ranking.
When you go the blackboard tab for Section 6 & 7 you will find the exercise. The instructions are fairly self-explanatory and there is an explanation at the end of the exercise is to why things are in the order that they are in.
Saving a key account (cont.)
Do not go past the page to get at the answers until it’s time to score!
When it is time to score, fill in your individual rankings, then the group rankings (if you can find a group), before seeing the expert rankings and then use absolute scoring to determine their individual and team scores just like they did in the key leadership exercise that you completed in sections three and four.
Major Question
How do I work with others to make things happen?
Comment
Research suggests that the best individual, acting alone, can make a better decision than a group. However, groups make better decisions than most individuals acting alone.
Advantages of Group Decision Making
Greater pool of knowledge
Different perspectives
Intellectual stimulation
Better understanding of decision rationale
Deeper commitment to the decision
Disadvantages of Group Decision Making
A few people dominate or intimidate
Groupthink
Satisficing
Goal displacement
Comment
Satisficing—seeking a decision that is “good enough” rather than “best.”
Goal displacement – when other considerations than the primary goal rise to the fore, such as rivals trying to win an argument
Groupthink
Groupthink
occurs when group members strive to agree for the sake of unanimity and thus avoid accurately assessing the decision situation
What Managers Need to Know About Groups & Decision Making
They are less efficient.
Their size affects decision quality.
They may be too confident.
Knowledge counts.
Comment: What Managers Need to Know about Groups and Decision Making
1. They are less efficient. Groups take longer to make decisions.
2. Group size affects decision quality; the larger the group, the lower the quality of the decision.
3. Groups may be too confident, and it can lead to groupthink.
4. Knowledge counts. Decision making accuracy is higher when group members know a good deal about the relevant issues, or if the group leader can weight members’ opinions.
When a Group Can Help in Decision Making
Comment: What Managers Need to Know about Groups and Decision Making
Managers should also consider using certain guidelines in using groups in decision making:
a. When it can increase quality – If additional information would increase the quality of the decision, involve those people who provide the needed information
b. When it can increase acceptance – Involve those individuals whose acceptance and commitment are important
c. When it can increase development – Involve those individuals whose development is important
Participative Management
Participative Management
process of involving employees in setting goals, making decisions, solving problems, and making changes in the organization
Comment (H) Participative Management: Involving Employees in Decision Making
Is PM really effective?
It can increase employee job involvement, organizational commitment, and creativity.
However, the impact on job performance and satisfaction is small.
Participative management doesn’t work in all situations, but it can be effective if certain factors are present.
Group Problem-Solving Techniques
Consensus
occurs when members are able to express their opinions and reach agreement to support the final decision
Brainstorming
technique used to help groups generate multiple ideas and alternatives for solving problems
Comment (H) Group Problem-Solving Techniques: Reaching for Consensus
Using groups to make decisions generally requires that they reach a consensus.
Consensus occurs when members are able to express their opinions and reach agreement to support the final decision.
It does not mean that all group members agree with the decision; only that they are willing to work toward its success.
Group Problem-Solving Techniques: Reaching for Consensus
Brainstorming is a technique used to help groups generate multiple ideas and alternatives for solving problems.
a. The technique consists of having members of a group meet and review a problem to be solved.
b. Individual members are then asked to silently generate ideas, which are then collected and written on a board, after which they are critiqued and evaluated.
c. A variation is electronic brainstorming, or brainwriting, in which group members come together over a computer network to generate ideas.
Group Problem-Solving Techniques: Reaching for Consensus
The Delphi Technique is a group process that uses physically dispersed experts who fill out questionnaires to anonymously generate ideas.
The judgments are combined and in effect averaged to achieve a consensus of expert opinion.
Computer-Aided Decision Making
Chauffeur-driven systems
ask participants to answer predetermined questions on electronic keypads or dials
Group-driven systems
involves a meeting within a room of participants who express their ideas anonymously on a computer network for anonymous networking
Managing Group and Team Decision-Making Processes
Managers can promote the effectiveness of group and team decision making by:
Being aware of the pros and cons of having a group or team make a decision.
Setting deadlines for when decisions must be made.
Avoiding dominance problems by managing group membership.
Having each group member individually critically evaluate all alternatives.
Not making your position known too early.
Appointing a group member to be a “devil’s advocate.”
Holding a follow-up meeting to recheck the decision.
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Managing Group and Team Decision-Making Processes
Managers who are aware of the pros and cons of group decision making can be more careful about how they manage the group’s time and resources.
Effective managers can avoid dominance by a single member.
To avoid groupthink, the group should analyze all alternatives critically and allow divergent viewpoints to be presented. It is also a good idea to ask one member to play the role of devil’s advocate.
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Major Question
How is one collection of workers different from any other?
Comment
Groups versus Teams.
Organizations are not only flatter and information-based but also organized around teamwork.
Why Teamwork is Important
Table 13.1
Comment
Teamwork is now the cornerstone of progressive management for a number of reasons.
Groups & Teams
Group
two or more freely acting individuals who share collective norms, collective goals, and have a common identity
Comment
Groups and Teams: How Do They Differ?
1. A group of people and a team of people are not the same thing.
a. A group is defined as two or more freely interacting individuals who share collective norms and goals, and have a common identity.
(1) It is different from a crowd, which is a transitory collection of people who don’t interact with one another.
(2) It is also different from an organization (such as a labor union) which is so large that members also don’t interact.
Groups & Teams
Team
small group of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, performance goals, and approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable
Formal versus Informal Groups
Formal group
established to do something productive for the organization
headed by a leader
Informal group
formed by people seeking friendship
has no officially appointed leader, although a leader may emerge
Comment
Groups may be formal or informal.
a. A formal group is a group established to do something productive for the organization and is headed by a leader.
(1) A formal group may be a division, a department, a work group, or a committee, and it may be permanent or temporary.
(2) People are usually assigned to teams according to their skills and the organization’s requirements.
Comment
b. An informal group is a group formed by people seeking friendship and has no officially appointed leader, although a leader may emerge from the membership.
(1) An informal group may be simply a collection of friends or other voluntary organization.
c. Informal groups can advance or undercut the plans of formal groups.
d. These groups can also be highly productive—even more so than formal groups.
Various Types of Teams
Table 13.2
Comment
Work Teams for Four Purposes: Advice, Production, Project, and Action
1. Work teams engage in collective work requiring coordinated effort. They are of four types, identified according to their basic purpose: advice, production, project or action.
Work Teams for Four Purposes
Advice teams
created to broaden the information base for managerial decisions
Committees, review panels
Production teams
responsible for performing day-to-day operations
Assembly teams, maintenance crews
Comment
Advice teams are created to broaden the information base for managerial decisions. Examples: committees, advisory councils, and continuous improvement teams.
Production teams are responsible for performing day-to-day operations. Examples: flight attendant crews, maintenance crews.
Work Teams for Four Purposes
Project teams
work to do creative problem solving, often by applying the specialized knowledge of members of a cross-functional team
Task forces, research groups
Work Teams for Four Purposes
Action teams
work to accomplish tasks that require people with specialized training and a high degree of coordination
Hospital surgery teams, airline cockpit crews, police SWAT teams
Self-Managed Teams
Self-Managed teams
groups of workers who are given administrative oversight for their task domains
Comment
Self-Managed Teams: Workers with Own Administrative Oversight
1. Self-managed teams emerged from what were called quality circles.
Comment
These are now known as continuous improvement teams, which consist of small groups of volunteers or workers and supervisors who meet intermittently to discuss workplace- and quality-related teams.
Self-managed teams are defined as groups of workers who are given administrative oversight for their task domains.
Comment: Self-Managed Teams
(1) Administrative oversight involves delegated activities such as planning, scheduling, monitoring and staffing.
(2) The traditional distinction between manager and managed is being blurred as non-managerial employees are delegated greater authority and granted increased authority.
Comment: Self-Management Teams
(3) The most common chores of today’s self-managed teams are work scheduling and customer interaction. Least common are hiring and firing.
(4) Self-managed teams have been found to have a positive effect on productivity and attitudes of self-responsibility and control, but there is no significant effect on job satisfaction and organizational commitment.
Ways to Empower Self-Managed Teams
Table 13.3
Major Question
How does a group evolve into a team?
Five Stages of Group and Team Development
Figure 13.1
Comment
Stages of Group and Team Development
A. Groups and teams go through five stages of development: forming, storming, norming, performing and adjourning.
Stage I: Forming
Forming
process of getting oriented and getting acquainted
Leaders should allow time for people to become acquainted and socialize
Comment
The first stage, forming, is the process of getting oriented and getting acquainted.
1. This stage is characterized by a high degree of uncertainty as members try to break the ice and figure out who is in charge and what the group’s goals are.
2. Mutual trust is low, and there is a good deal of holding back to see who takes charge and how.
3. Leaders should allow time for people to become acquainted and socialize.
Stage 2: Storming
Storming
characterized by the emergence of individual personalities and roles and conflicts within the group
Leaders should encourage members to suggest ideas, voice disagreements, and work through their conflicts about tasks and goals
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Comment
Storming
1. The length of this stage depends on the clarity of goals and the commitment and maturity of the members.
2. Individuals may test the leader’s policies to determine how they fit into the power structure.
3. In this stage, the leader should encourage members to suggest ideas, voice disagreements and work through their conflicts.
Stage 3: Norming
Norming
conflicts are resolved, close relationships develop, and unity and harmony emerge
Group cohesiveness
Leaders should emphasize unity and help identify team goals and values
Comment
Norming
1. The group may now evolve into a team.
2. Teams set guidelines for what its members will do together and how they will do it.
Comment: Norming (cont.)
3. Questions about authority are resolved through unemotional group discussion.
4. Group cohesiveness, a “we feeling” binding group members together, is the principal by-product of stage 3.
5. The leader should emphasize unity and help identify the team’s goals and values.
Stage 4: Performing
Performing
members concentrate on solving problems and completing the assigned tasks
Leaders should allow members the empowerment they need to work on tasks
Comment
Performing
1. During this stage, the leader should give members the empowerment they need to work on tasks.
Stage 5: Adjourning
Adjourning
members prepare for disbandment
Leaders can help ease the transition by rituals celebrating “the end” and “new beginnings”
Comment
Adjourning
1. The leader can help ease the transition by rituals celebrating “the end” and “new beginnings.”
2. The team leader can highlight valuable lessons learned to prepare everyone for future group and team efforts.
Major Question
How can I as a manager build an effective team?
Building Effective Teams
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Cooperation
Trust
Cohesiveness.
Performance goals and feedback
Motivation through mutual accountability
Size
Roles
Norms
Awareness of groupthink
Building Effective teams
Three most essential considerations in building an effective team
Cooperating
efforts are systematically integrated to achieve a collective objective.
Trust
reciprocal faith in others’ intentions and behaviors
Cohesiveness
tendency of a group or team to stick together
Comment
Building Effective Teams
A. The most essential considerations in building an effective team are: cooperation, trust and cohesiveness.
1. These are followed by performance goals and feedback, motivation through mutual accountability, size, roles, norms, and awareness of groupthink.
Comment
Cooperation – Individuals are said to be cooperating when their efforts are systematically integrated to achieve a collective objective.
1. A meta-analysis of studies suggests that cooperation is superior to competition and individualistic efforts in promoting achievement and productivity.
Comment
Trust – Trust is defined as reciprocal faith in others’ intentions and behaviors.
1. The word reciprocal emphasizes the give-and-take aspect of trust; trust begets trust; distrust begets distrust.
2. Trust is based on credibility – how believable you are based on your past acts of integrity and follow-through on your promises.
Comment
Cohesiveness – Cohesiveness is the tendency of a group or team to stick together.
1. Managers can stimulate cohesiveness by encouraging people to have face-to-face exchanges at work.
2. A recent study found that patterns of communication among team members were the most important predictor of team success.
3. Table 13.5 shows other suggestions for enhancing team cohesiveness.
How to Enhance Cohesiveness in Teams
Table 13.5
Comment
Performance Goals & Feedback
1. Since teams are individuals organized for a collective purpose, the purpose needs to be defined in terms of specific, measurable performance goals with continual feedback to tell team members how well they are doing.
Comment
Motivation through Mutual Accountability
A culture that supports teamwork exists when:
a. clear performance goals exist,
b. the work is considered meaningful,
c. members believe their efforts matter, and
d. they don’t feel they are being exploited by others.
2. Members feel mutual trust and commitment because they are mutually accountable.
How to Enhance Cohesiveness in Teams
GETTING PEOPLE TO WORK TOGETHER ASSESSMENT:
A BAKER’S DOZEN
(Handout)
The Interaction Between Cohesiveness and Performance Norms
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Comments
Consequences of cohesiveness include more group interaction, more norm conformity, and increased group performance. In groups that have high performance norms, cohesiveness can lead to high performance.
A popular movie from several years ago called Remember the Titans, starring Denzel Washington, provides a good illustration of the development and consequences of group cohesiveness.
Japanese work groups have traditionally been characterized by both high performance norms and high levels of cohesiveness. This characteristic may help explain why Japanese businesses are so competitive.
Size: Small Teams or Large Teams?
Small teams: 2-9 members
better interaction
better morale
Disadvantages
Fewer resources
Possibly less innovation
Unfair work distribution
Comment
Size – Small and large teams have different characteristics, although the number of members is somewhat arbitrary.
Teams with 9 or fewer members have advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages:
(1) Better interaction—more opportunity for personal discussion and participation.
(2) Better morale—members are better able to see the worth of their individual contributions.
Comment
Disadvantages:
(1) Fewer resources—less knowledge, experience, skills, and abilities to apply to the team’s tasks.
(2) Possibility less innovation—a group that’s too small may be less creative and bold.
Comment
Unfair work distribution due to less specialization and fewer resources.
Size: Small Teams or Large Teams?
Large Teams: 10-16 members
More resources
Division of labor
Disadvantages
Less interaction
Lower morale
Social loafing
Multimedia Lecture Support Package to Accompany Basic Marketing
Lecture Script 6-132
Comment
Large teams of 10-16 members have different advantages and disadvantages:
Advantages:
(1) More resources—they can access more knowledge, experience, skills, abilities, and time.
(2) Division of labor—Large teams can take advantage of division of labor, in which the work is divided into particular tasks that are assigned to particular workers.
Comment
Disadvantages:
(1) Less interaction—less sharing of information and coordinating of activities.
(2) Lower morale—people are less able to see the worth of their individual contributions.
(3) Social loafing, the tendency of people to exert less effort when working in groups than when working alone.
Roles & Norms
Roles
a socially determined expectation of how an individual should behave in a specific position
Task roles, maintenance roles
Norms
general guidelines that most group or team members follow
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Comment
Roles: How Team Members Are Expected to Behave
a. A team member’s role is to help the team reach its goals.
b. Members develop their roles based on the expectations of the team, the organization, and themselves.
Comment
2. There are two types of team roles: task and maintenance.
A task role, or task-oriented role, consists of behavior that concentrates on getting the team’s tasks done.
(1) These roles keep the team on track and get the work done.
Comment
A maintenance role, or relationship-oriented role, consists of behavior that fosters constructive relationships among members.
(1) These roles focus on keeping team members together.
Comment
Norms: Unwritten Rules for Team Members
1. Norms are general guidelines or rules of behavior that most group or team members follow.
a. Norms define the boundaries between acceptable and unacceptable behavior.
b. Although unwritten, norms have a powerful influence on group and organizational behavior.
Why Norms are Enforced
To help the group survive
To clarify role expectations
To help individuals avoid embarrassing situations
To emphasize the group’s important values and identity
Comment
Norms are enforced for four primary reasons:
a. To help the group survive—“Don’t do anything that will hurt us.”
b. To clarify role expectations—“You have to go along to get along.”
c. To help individuals avoid embarrassing situations—“Don’t call attention to yourself.”
d. To emphasize the group’s important values and identity—“We’re known for being special.”
Cohesiveness & Groupthink
Groupthink
a cohesive group’s blind unwillingness to consider alternatives
Comment
Groupthink: When Peer Pressure Discourages “Thinking Outside the Box”
a. The group’s striving for unanimity overrides their motivation to realistically appraise alternative courses of action.
Comment
The Abilene paradox is the tendency of people to go along with others for the sake of avoiding conflict.
Symptoms of Groupthink
Invulnerability, inherent morality, and stereotyping of opposition
Rationalization and self-censorship
Illusion of unanimity, peer pressure, and mindguards
Groupthink versus “the wisdom of the crowds”
Comment
Symptoms of groupthink include:
Invulnerability, inherent morality, and stereotyping of opposition
(1) Group members have the illusion that nothing can go wrong, breeding excessive optimism and risk taking.
(2) Because they are so assured of the rightness of their actions, they ignore the ethical implications of their decisions, and these beliefs are helped along by stereotyped views of the opposition.
Comment
Rationalization and self-censorship
(1) Rationalizing protects the pet assumptions underlying the group’s decisions from critical questions.
(2) Self-censorship also stifles critical debate.
Comment
Illusion of unanimity, peer pressure, and mindguards
(1) Silence by a member is interpreted to mean consent, but if people do disagree, peer pressure leads other members to question the loyalty of the dissenters.
(2) There may also be people known as mindguards – self-appointed protectors against adverse information.
Results of Groupthink
Reduction in alternative ideas
Limiting of other information
Comment
Groupthink versus “the wisdom of crowds”
(1) Groupthink is characterized by pressure to conform that often leads to members with different ideas to censor themselves, the opposite of collective wisdom.
Comment
The results of groupthink: decision-making defects
Groups with a moderate amount of cohesion tend to produce better decisions than groups with low or high cohesiveness.
Comment
Among decision-making defects that can arise from groupthink are:
Reduction in alternative ideas
(a) Decisions are made based on few alternatives.
(b) Neither preferred alternatives nor rejected alternatives are reexamined.
Comment
Limiting of other information
(a) When a groupthink group has made its decision, others opinions are rejected.
(b) There are no contingency plans in case the decision turns out to be faulty.
Preventing Groupthink
Allow criticism
Allow other perspectives
Comment
Preventing groupthink: making criticism and other perspectives
Allow criticism.
(1) Each member should be encouraged to be a critical evaluator.
(2) Once a consensus has been reached, everyone should be encouraged to rethink their position.
Comment
Allow other perspectives.
(1) Outside experts should be used to introduce fresh perspectives.
(2) When major alternatives are discussed, someone should be made devil’s advocate to try to uncover all negative factors.
Major Question
Since conflict is a part of life, what should a manager know about it in order to deal successfully with it?
The Nature of Conflict
Conflict
process in which one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party
Major Question
Since conflict is a part of life, what should a manager know about it in order to deal successfully with it?
Comment
Managing Conflict
A. Among the sources of workplace conflict are employee dismissals, increased workloads, pressure cooker deadlines, and demands for higher productivity.
B. Conflict is a process in which one party perceives that its interests are being opposed or negatively affected by another party.
C. Conflicts may be between individuals, between an individual and a group, between groups, and between an organization and its environment.
The Nature of Conflict
Dysfunctional conflict
conflict that hinders the organization’s performance or threatens its interest
Functional conflict
conflict that benefits the main purposes of the organization and serves its interests
Comment
There are two types of conflicts: dysfunctional conflict and functional conflict.
1. Dysfunctional conflict (sometimes called negative conflict) is conflict that hinders the organization’s performance or threatens its interests.
a. As a manager, you need to do what you can to remove dysfunctional conflict, sometimes called negative conflict.
Comment
2. Functional conflict (also called constructive conflict or cooperative conflict) benefits the main purposes of the organization and serves its interests.
Relationship Between Level of Conflict and Level of Performance
Figure 13.2
Comment
Can Too Little or Too Much Conflict Affect Performance?
1. Social scientists now believe that organizations can suffer from too little conflict.
2. Too little conflict—indolence:
a. Work groups or organizations that experience too little conflict tend to suffer apathy and lack of creativity.
b. Organizational performance suffers.
Comment
3. Too much conflict—warfare:
a. Excessive conflict can erode organizational performance.
b. Too much conflict can show up as workplace aggression and violence.
4. A moderate level of conflict can raise performance by encouraging creativity.
Comment
Three Kinds of Conflict: Personality, Intergroup, & Cross-Cultural. There are a variety of sources of conflict—so-called conflict triggers.
Three Kinds of Conflict
Personality conflict
interpersonal opposition based on personal dislike, disagreement, or differing styles
Personality clashes, competition for scarce resources, time pressure, communication failures
168
Comment
1. Personality conflict is defined as interpersonal opposition based on personal dislike, disagreement, or differing styles.
a. Personality clashes – when individual differences can’t be resolved.
b. Competition for scarce resources – when two parties need the same things.
c. Time pressure – when people believe there aren’t enough hours to do the work
d. Communication failures – when people misperceive and misunderstand.
Three Kinds of Conflict
2. Intergroup conflicts
Inconsistent goals or reward systems, ambiguous jurisdictions, status differences
3. Multicultural conflicts
Comment
Intergroup conflicts: Clashes Between Work Groups, Teams, and Departments. Some causes of intergroup conflicts are:
a. Inconsistent goals or reward systems – when people pursue different objectives.
b. Ambiguous jurisdictions – when job boundaries are unclear.
c. Status differences – when there are inconsistencies in power and influence.
Comment
Multicultural Conflicts: Clashes between Cultures
With cross-border mergers, joint ventures, and international alliances common, there are frequent opportunities for clashes between cultures.
Devices to Stimulate Constructive Conflict
Spur competition among employees
Change the organization’s culture & procedures
Bring in outsiders for new perspectives
Use programmed conflict
Comment
How to Stimulate Constructive Conflict
1. Constructive conflict can be productive under a number of circumstances:
a. When your work group seems afflicted with inertia and apathy.
b. When there is a lack of new ideas and resistance to change.
c. When there seems to be “groupthink” in the work unit.
d. When managers are more concerned with compromise than in achieving organizational objectives.
Comment
2. Spur competition among employees. Competition can spur people to produce higher results.
3. Change the organization’s culture and procedures.
a. Competition may be created by making deliberate and highly publicized moves to change the corporate culture.
b. High-visibility bonuses and promotions will reinforce results.
Comment
4. Bring in outsiders for new perspectives.
a. Organizations can become inbred and resistant to change without “new blood.”
b. Outsiders can bring new perspectives and can shake things up.
Programmed Conflict
Devil’s advocacy
process of assigning someone to play the role of critic to voice possible objections to a proposal and thereby generate critical thinking and reality testing
Dialectic method
process of having two people or groups play opposing roles in a debate in order to better understand a proposal
Comment
Use programmed conflict: devil’s advocacy and the dialectic method.
a. Programmed conflict is designed to elicit different opinions without inciting people’s personal feelings.
Comment
(1) Devil’s advocacy is the process of assigning someone to play the role of critic to voice possible objections to a proposal and thereby generate critical thinking and reality testing.
(2) The dialectic method is the process of having two people or groups play opposing roles in a debate in order to better understand a proposal.
Controlling Conflict Comments
Sometimes managers want to control conflict to keep it from becoming excessive.
There are several methods that are useful in controlling conflict:
1. Increase the resource base.
2. Enhance coordination.
3. Focus group members on superordinate goals.
4. Match the personalities and work habits of employees.
Can you think of other methods for controlling conflict?
Resolving and Eliminating Conflict Comments
Managers often need to resolve and eliminate conflict.
Common methods for resolving and eliminating conflict include the following:
1. Take steps to avoid it to begin with.
2. Convince the conflicting parties to compromise.
3. Bring the conflicting parties together to confront and negotiate the issues.
Global Connection: Conflict among coworkers is much less acceptable in Japan than it is in the United States.
Successful Leadership is About Problem-Solving!
Conflicts come from unresolved problems!
Problem-solving can build and unite a team!
Always get at the root of the problem!
Remember being a successful leader is all about solving problems!
Additional Information
Work Groups
Informal Work Groups
Formal Work Groups
Command groups
Task Forces
Teams
Self-managed work teams
Friendship Groups
Interest Groups
Additional Information
This is a supplemental to diagram the types of work groups that fall under formal and informal work groups.
Additional Information
Similarity. Diversity of group members
Group Cohesiveness
Competition with other groups
Group Size
Success
Exclusiveness
Group Cohesiveness
Group cohesiveness is the attractiveness of a group to its members.
High cohesiveness in groups means the group is appealing to its members and have a higher satisfaction.
There are several factors that contribute to group cohesiveness.
1) Group Size, 2) Similarity/Diversity of members, 3) Competition with other groups, 4) Success and 5) exclusiveness.
Comment: Group Cohesiveness
1) Group Size- satisfaction tends to decrease as size increases and therefore are not as cohesive. In a large group, a few members are likely to dominate and opportunities for other members become limited.
2) Similarity/Diversity of Group Members- groups tend to be more cohesive when members share similar attitudes, values, experiences, etc. However, if diversity of the group’s members helps to achieve goals, then diversity, instead of similarity, is likely to facilitate group cohesiveness.
Comment: Group Cohesiveness
3) Competition with other groups- cohesiveness is increased when it motivates members to come together to achieve goals. Ex: groups of salespersons compete to see which can sell the most each month
4) Success- when groups are successful, they become attractive to their members and cohesiveness increases.
5) Exclusiveness- this is determined by how difficult it is to become a member of the group. When members go through a tough initiation or training process, becoming a member of the group is prized. (Ex: firefighters go through an intense training exercises)
4 Types of Work Groups
Top Management Team
Self-Managed Work Teams
Research and Development Team
Virtual Teams
Comment: Top Management Team
Group of managers that report to the CEO.
The best decisions are made by top management teams when they are diverse or heterogeneous, consisting of managers from many backgrounds (marketing, finance, production etc.)
Therefore, the diversity of a top management team brings different viewpoints to the table
Comment: Self-Managed Work Teams
The goal of this group is to enhance job satisfaction and motivate members to perform at higher levels.
Tasks that are normally performed by individual employees and managed by a supervisor now fall under the responsibility of a group ensuring the tasks are done and are done well.
Organizations that have been successful with this are General Mills, Federal Express, Aetna Life and Casualty, etc.
Comment: Research and Development Teams
Are used to develop new products, particularly in the high tech industries, such as electronics, pharmaceuticals and computers.
This team may be cross-functional, where there are members from different departments that (engineering, finance, marketing, sales, manufacturing, etc.) for developing a new product
Comment: Virtual Teams
Team interactions and communications occur electronically. These teams allow for business to be done in different places and/or time zones.
The types of communication these teams use depends on the tasks needed to be done.
Synchronous technologies allows for instant and real time communication, such as videoconferencing, teleconferencing, instant messaging, and electronic meetings.
Asynchronous technologies results in delayed communication, such as email, websites, electronic bulletin boards.
