Discussion #5 - Shwartz & DeKeseredy

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WOMEN AND VICTIMIZATION:

INTIMATE PARTNER ABUSE AND STALKING

SECTION IV

Introduction

Historical
Women as property
“Rule of thumb”
1871: AL and MA made wife-beating illegal
Battered Women’s Movement (1960s-1970s)
Systematic changes in CJ response
Violence Against Women Act (VAWA, 1994)
Provides funding and opportunities for civil claims
Current congressional debate could lead to limits on VAWA

Defining and Identifying Intimate Partner Abuse

Terminology does not reflect multifaceted nature of IPA
Wife battering
Domestic violence
Intimate partner abuse
Preferred terminology
Variations in definition of IPA
NCVS extended definition
Estimated 1.3 million women are victimized (NCVS)
Considered a misdemeanor in most jurisdictions

Defining and Identifying Intimate Partner Abuse

Research on IPA is difficult to conduct
Behind closed doors
Incidents go unreported due to shame and/or fear
Mixed experiences with CJ professionals
Presence of a weapon significantly increases the risk of homicide
20 times more likely to be killed
IPA includes emotional abuse although few laws recognize this
Called derogatory names and blamed for their own victimization
Financially dependent on abuser
Case Study: Nigella Lawson

Cycle of Violence

Walker (1979)
Phases of the Cycle of Violence
Tension building
Abusive incident
Honeymoon
Cyclical nature of battering

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

IPA can happen to anyone and is committed by spouses, intimates and ex-intimates
Dating Violence
One-third of college students and one-third of youth report histories of dating violence
Teens at greater risk
At higher risk for health issues
Continues from adolescence to adulthood

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

Children of IPA
Majority of incidents occur while children are present
Learned behavior?
Cycle of violence
Many factors in predicting who will grow up to offend
Negative mental health and academic outcomes
Continuum of care needed for children of IPA
Need to avoid self-fulfilling prophecy

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

Same-Sex IPA
Rates similar to heterosexual relationships
Research limitations
Underreporting
Additional challenge of “outing”
Similar risk factors
Power and Control Wheel
Unique factors
Heterosexism
Homophobia

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

Same-Sex IPA

Importance of social support

Gender-role stereotypes

“Girls don’t hit other girls”

“Myth of the lesbian utopia”

“Cat fight”

“Playing the feminine victim”

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

Same-Sex IPA

Lack of programs and services

Need for intervention and education efforts fitting for the LGBT community

Laws hinder protective order applications and prosecution of offenders

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

Race, Ethnicity, and IPA
Cultural differences and structural inequality
Recognition of other factors (age, income, isolation)
African Americans are at an increased risk
Offenders feel devalued and take out their frustration on partner
Underreporting due to cultural constraints
Religion as a factor in deciding whether to report

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

Race, Ethnicity, and IPA
African American women have been found to be significantly more likely to seek emergency, police, and other services
Need for culturally relevant support

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

Immigrant Victims
Batterers seek to regain control and power in their lives
Strain resulting from role-conflict
Women in the workplace
Cultural acceptance of violence
Difficult to seek out services
Shame
Feel they do not have the right to disobey
Desire to maintain the family unit leads to underreporting

Victims of Intimate Partner Abuse

Immigrant Victims
Fear of deportation
Unaware of protections
Distrust of U.S. legal system
Language barriers
Training for immigration lawyers, health services personnel
Those likely to come in contact with victims
Public service announcements
Case Study: Intimate Partner Abuse in India

Barriers to Leaving an Abusive Relationship

“Why doesn‘t she just leave?”
Blames victim
Issues faced by victims
Safety
Housing relocation
Needs of children and pets
Financial limitations
Need for social support
Average abused woman leaves 7-8 times before successful

Barriers to Leaving an Abusive Relationship

Children
Keeping the family together
More likely to leave if children are negatively affected
Impact of religion
Clergy ill-equipped to handle the issue
Love persists as does the hope he/she will change
Cultural pressure

Victim Experiences with Police and Corrections

Research finds mixed satisfaction levels
Treatment by police upon initial report
Higher satisfaction related to likelihood of future reporting
Specialized domestic violence courts increase satisfaction

Victim Experiences with Police and Corrections

Arrest Policies
Mandatory vs. Discretionary Arrest Policies
Mandatory refers to legal duty of a police officer to make an arrest
22 states have such laws
Based on deterrence
Responsibility of police to make the decision
Some victims feel disempowered
Less likely to report if they think batterers will be arrested

Victim Experiences with Police and Corrections

Dual-arrest policies
Same-sex incidents
Implications for women
Refusal of shelter services
Challenges in child custody cases
Programming should be tailored to women
No-drop policies
Evidence-based practices without need for victim testimony
Further disempowers victims

Case Study: IPA and Shelters

Designed to provide support and empowerment for victims
Services accessed
Legal assistance
Counseling services
Wraparound services
Life-skills assistance
What happens to women who do not use shelter services?
Transitional housing programs
Overall, resources are lacking
Referrals to community agencies

Victim Experiences with Police and Corrections

Programming Concerns
Batterer prevention programs
Group therapy
Criticized for assuming all offenders are the same
Victim dissatisfaction
Need for culturally relevant programs

Stalking and Intimate Partner Violence

Course of conduct directed as a specific person that would cause a reasonable person to feel fear
Estimates of victimization are high
5.9 million victims
Examples of stalking behaviors
Unwanted phone calls
Waiting at places for the victim
Leaving unwanted items
Spreading rumors

Stalking and Intimate Partner Violence

Celebrity cases
Relationships begin normally
Stalking is underreported
Victims blame themselves
Fear of escalation
Perceived as personal matter
Perceived stalking as not serious enough
Felt nothing could be done

Stalking and Intimate Partner Violence

Coping strategies
Therapeutic resources
Changing behavior patterns
Relocation
Renegotiation of relationship boundaries
Reporting and building a legal case against the stalker

Victims and Offenders of Stalking

Victims are more likely to be women
Perpetrators are more likely to be male and known to the victim
Common experiences for victims of IPV

The more severe the abuse, the higher the levels of stalking

Women who leave are more likely to be stalked

Even after CJ intervention

If abusers use drugs and alcohol, they are more likely to stalk

Victims and Offenders of Stalking

Economics affect mobility
Offenders may use third-party assistance
Victims at risk for mental health problems
Anxiety
Post-traumatic stress
Services should acknowledge the unique needs of stalking victims

Cyber-stalking

Addresses the use of technology as a tool in stalking
As harmful as other forms of stalking
Youth and young adults at higher risk due to their use of technology
Need to understand the reality of these crimes in order to provide effective support

Laws on Stalking

Not criminalized until 1990 in California
Majority of state laws include stalking by electronic methods
Laws become outdated quickly

Laws on Stalking

Victims must indicate fear

What about victims who do not experience fear?

Levels of fear depend on

Identity of the stalker
Methods used

Conclusion

Prior victims encourage reporting
Restraining Orders
Increasing community awareness

Reading 7

Shelters as “Band-Aids”
Programming
Attention (media)
Example: Michael Vick
Money
Violence Against Women as a Cause of Crime
Strategy to reduce adolescent and adult criminal behavior in later years
Male Peer Support
Model
Focus on male behavior

Reading 7

Solving Problems
National level of discussion
Change attitudes
Conclusion
Intervention aimed directly at patriarchal attitudes

Reading 8

Mahlstedt and Keeny (1993)
92% of women disclosed the abuse to at least one source
Sources are most likely to be informal
Women endorse barriers to disclosure for
Fear of safety
Societal reactions
Abuse is private matter
Self-blame

Reading 8

Method
Participants
44 women
CTS2
Results
Approx. 75% of the sample disclosed dating violence to at least one source
56% of disclosers perceived that their friends as the most helpful
The most common reason for nondisclosure was that the incident was “no big deal” (80%)

Reading 8

Discussion
Limitations of the study
Sample size
Retrospective nature of study
Interviews should be used to provide in-depth analysis
Policy Implications
Dating violence programming
Social awareness efforts