APA Paper

Using NASA Resources and Remote Access to Promote Geology BY BRANDON RODRIGUEZ, VANESSA WOLF, ESTEBAN BAUTISTA, SVETLANA TIMBERLAKE, JAMES SCHIFLEY, JAMES SMITH, M. JOSEFINA ARELLANO-JIMENEZ, AND JARED ASHCROFT

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CONTENT AREA

Chemistry, geology, physical sciences

GRADE LEVEL

6–9

BIG IDEA/UNIT

Earth science can teach us about space science

ESSENTIAL PRE-EXISTING KNOWLEDGE

Names and symbols of common chemical elements, how to calculate density, physical properties of minerals

TIME REQUIRED

Approximately 1.5–2 hours

COST

About $10

SAFETY

Indirectly vented chemical splash-proof goggles are required for stations 1 and 4.

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Supplies used • 4–6 small pieces of the “unknown”

(limestone) sample

• 2–4 pennies

• 2–4 ceramic streak plates

• 1–2 balances

• 1–2 graduated cylinders

• 3–4 example minerals for comparing hardness, such as chalk, quartz or calcite rocks

• 2–3 student calculators for station 2

• 2–3 hand-held magnifying lenses

• laptop computer with projector for remote access

History was made when NASA sent the Mars Science Laboratory, better known as the Curi-osity rover, to Mars. Arriving August 2012 at Gale Crater, Curiosity began exploring the Martian surface, analyzing soil and rock samples, and send- ing images and data back to Earth. One aspect of exploration is to gain a better understanding of the geological makeup of Mars. While Curiosity has giv- en scientists insight into the nature and composition of Mars, physical Martian samples must be retrieved and investigated to ascertain an accurate geological history of the red planet. In 2020, another rover, yet to be named, will be sent to Mars to continue explor- ing the planet (NASA 2017a).

In what seems like science fiction, core samples on Mars will be collected, packaged, and returned to an established launching device that will transport the samples to Earth (NASA 2017b). This process op- erates like an interplanetary t-shirt cannon, loading rock samples into a sample launcher that will fire the Martian rocks back to Earth, and represents a com- plex network of devices and satellites that make up the Mars Sample Return (MSR) Program.

While still in its infancy, the MSR epitomizes the need to attract young students to science. These stu-

dents will be the future investigators, and developing consequential studies that they can partake in at the onset of their science education is essential for ad- vancing interest in projects such as the MSR. The ac- tivity described in this article was developed with the goal of increasing middle school students’ interest in science using a multidisciplinary geology and chem- istry project that revolves around the MSR program.

Setting the stage Before students begin the activities, a short presen- tation is shared regarding the forthcoming research NASA will perform on the geological samples from Mars (see Online Supplemental Materials). Students are then told an unknown rock sample has arrived from Mars, and they are challenged to use existing methods they have covered in their Earth science curriculum to determine its composition.

Interest is immediately captured when they learn they will have remote access to a scanning electron microscope, and that a scientist at a local college will help validate their findings using an elemental analy- sis technique called energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), allowing us to see what types of elements are pres- ent and in what ratio. While not absolutely essential for the lab experience, this remote access session is a free service available to educators as part of the RAIN network, represented by 16 university sites across the

| FIGURE 1A AND 1B: Death Valley mountain range (A) and images of Martian mountains sent back from NASA’s Curiosity rover (B)

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United States that allow for live virtual imaging (Ash- croft et al. 2018). This virtual experience, done in real time via an online scheduling tool, allows students to remotely control university-caliber lab equipment, thus lowering the barrier for communities without easy ac- cess to technology (see Nano4me.org in Resources). The SEM and EDS instruments can be reserved for a whole class day, although the remote access viewing for this activity only requires 20 minutes, wherein students can control the instrument from their own computer, under the direction of the technician in real time.

Engage Students, excited to apply their background knowl- edge to a space exploration theme, are engaged when asked to identify which of two pictures (Figures 1A and 1B) depicts a Martian landscape. Approximately 90% of students choose picture A, an image of Death Valley, and this confusion in seeing just how similar the Martian landscape is compared to that of Earth results in quick interest from students.

Explore In implementing this activity, students collect unique data at five separate stations, done in groups. Several

small samples of the unknown rock sample (limestone) are provided at each station for student testing. Stu- dents, wearing safety goggles, move station to station, taking with them their guided notes and observation sheet. A timer is used on a projector to count down the time at each station, with six to eight minutes being suf- ficient. Students who may need extra processing time to analyze the data after leaving the station are provid- ed with additional image-rich reference sheets that are also posted at each station. Each station has a reference sheet with printed guidelines to ensure that students can complete the experiment at each station (see Online Supplemental Materials).

Station 1: Color, hardness, and streak Students collect data on physical properties of the un- known rock sample (limestone). Using simple magni- fying lenses, students note characteristics such as the rocks’ cleavage and luster. Several other example rocks are also included for student comparison, as described below. The station reference sheet contains an anchor chart for students to recall academic language they would have learned within the original geology unit.

Students use porcelain tiles to conduct a streak test to determine the mineral’s color in powdered form. By “streaking” the rock specimen across porcelain, a small amount of powdered rock is fixed to the surface of the plate and, based on the color of the powder, it is possible to ascertain the identity of the unknown rock. Students also conduct a Mohs hardness test, and are provided with several mineral samples to compare their unknown sample against. For example, known samples of talc, calcite, quartz, and even a penny are used to “scratch” the surface of the unknown mineral, and depending on the “scratch,” hardness of these known samples can be compared to the hardness of the unknown. These can be any rock or mineral samples easily available, and are obtained in most school resource kits or available online. Having just a couple of each at this station allows for re- use over the years. Because hardness is a relative scale, their findings (which are compared to a reference sheet, Figure 2) give them a range (in our case 4–6), and are not sufficient for them to identify the sample from the one station alone.

| FIGURE 2: Example of guided notes provided at each station for student reference during the activity

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Station 2: Density Because density can be a difficult concept for middle school students, students should already have expe- rience in calculating density and performing water displacement tests prior to this activity. Students are provided a scale and graduated cylinder, as well as several sizes of their unknown rock sample. By mass- ing the rock sample, students get the number in grams, and by dropping their rock in a graduated cylinder of water, they obtain the volume in milliliters. Perform- ing a simple mass over displacement ratio allows stu- dents to determine the density of their rock sample. The calculation is scaffolded for lower grades in their guided notes, at which point students should be able to determine the density of their unknown sample to be between 2.6 and 2.9 g/cm3.

Station 3: Flame test station In order to avoid having an open flame in the class- room, a short video was prepared (see “Flame test for

RAIN lab” in Resources), demonstrating this station, which can be used during the activity as either a stu- dent station or viewed as a whole class. As the four known solutions are misted across the flame, students observe the flame color, which can be compared to a reference sheet (Figure 3) to facilitate the connections between the flame color and cation (element). For example, in this implementation we used calcium, barium, copper, and strontium, although numerous other metals could be used to observe other colors. The resultant color of each cation is noted, and then matched to a similar solution containing the unknown rock sample dissolved in water. Students determine that the unknown sample produces an orange-red flame, similar to that found in the calcium or stron- tium solutions, allowing them to classify the iden- tity of the unknown rock’s elemental makeup, while ruling out metals such as copper, which produces a green flame. Students have identified a critical piece of information, but not a conclusive one, since the or- ange-red flame color is indicative of both calcium and strontium. It should also be noted that many minerals contain calcium and strontium. Therefore, a number of tests should be completed and compared before identifying the unknown rock sample. Students are, however, beginning to get close to a conclusion by us- ing a process of elimination on their guided notes, rul- ing out candidates that do not contain the orange-red, flame-inducing metal.

Station 4: Acid test While many students are excited at the idea of using acid, the fourth station is quite a simple and safe test. Students are provided an eye dropper with a small amount of white vinegar. Adding several drops of the vinegar to a piece of their known sample gener- ates the formation of bubbles. The bubbles are from the carbon dioxide that is produced when carbonate is reacted with the vinegar.

The bubbles indicate the presence of the carbon- ate ion (CO

3 2-) anion in the unknown rock sample.

Middle school students are unfamiliar with acid- base reactions, and as such, the student-guided notes are used to assist determination of what the bubbles

| FIGURE 3: Flame ionization color-matching table for element identification

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Safety Teachers comfortable with demonstrations, in- cluding fire, can perform station 3 at the front of the class for students, providing that proper safety protocol are followed. This should be a demon- stration only and not a hands-on activity. Using methanol or other alcohols can be very dangerous and unpredictable. Alcohols have a low flash point and are extremely flammable. It is too dangerous to use alcohol as a carrier for this demonstration, even if all safety precautions are taken. This is especially true at the middle school level. A safer alternative to the alcohol method is the wooden- splint method, which is described by the American Chemical Society. It can be accessed at: www.acs. org/content/dam/acsorg/about/governance/ committees/chemicalsafety/safetypractices/ flame-tests-demonstration.pdf. Additional safety information can be found at http://static.nsta.org/ files/ss0811_10.pdf.

Barium chloride is highly toxic. Precautions must be taken to avoid ingestion of the salt or so- lution. Wear proper personal protective equipment when preparing solutions. Students should wear chemical splash goggles and avoid contact with solutions when performing this experiment. Wash hands after handling materials used to prepare for or perform this experiment. Caution should be tak- en around open flames (Bunsen burner or propane torch). Ensure lab bench is clear of flammable ma- terials (solvents, papers, etc.) when performing this experiment. Students should be closely supervised when performing this experiment. Have a water source (beaker of water) on hand to extinguish the splints or cotton swabs and review MSDSs for each solution for proper and environmentally safe dis- posal. Conduct the flame test either under a fume hood or behind a safety shield.

signify. Students are generally aware of carbon diox- ide as either something we expel from breathing or as bubbles in their soda, allowing for connections to background knowledge.

Station 5: Scanning electron microscope Explain

Once the chemical and physical tests are completed, students are given time to reflect on their findings with their group to determine the identity of the unknown rock sample using the information about specific rocks located on their worksheet (Figure 4). Students then convene as a class for remote access to a scanning electron microscope (SEM) with elemental analysis to validate their conclusion. The RAIN partner, having previously been provided with a sample of limestone, has loaded the mineral onto the SEM equipped with el- emental analysis. (Supply the rock sample to the RAIN network one or two weeks in advance.). An image of the unknown/limestone rock sample is obtained and elemental analysis performed. Elemental analysis will illustrate the presence of calcium, carbon, and oxygen, thereby verifying the sample as “Martian limestone,” as clearly shown on the SEM interface. Students will capture this in their guided notes for station 5, not- ing the presence of elements described in the Analy- sis section of their handouts. Using the findings from their previous tests at stations 1–4, they will now have enough information to support the claim as to the na- ture of their sample, insofar as it matches up with the description on their worksheet. Students should have identified the unknown rock sample and from the SEM image and elemental analysis either confirmed or in- validated their previous conclusion. Diverse learners will still have their reference sheets to facilitate conclu- sion drawing to allow them to follow along.

Extend

Upon completing the activity, it is always our position that activities such as this should be coupled with further research, expressed through reading and writing. NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory has numerous websites con- taining description of this research, the Mars Sample Re- turn program, and upcoming Mars and planetary mis- sions, including images obtained from real satellites and rovers (see Resources). These resources ensure opportu- nities for students to extend their excitement for space and future exploration with the content they established

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| FIGURE 4: Student worksheet Death Valley in California is the lowest place in North America at 86 m (282 ft.) below sea level. Yet, the basin is surrounded by towering mountain peaks frosted with snow. Steady drought and some of Earth’s hottest temperatures make Death Valley a land of extremes. Death Valley’s oldest rocks are at least 1.7 billion years old. Around 500 million years ago, Death Valley was the site of a warm, shallow sea. Today, springs and creeks still exist in Death Valley that contain fish, a remnant of about 15,000 years ago when lakes and marshes were plentiful.

Identify an unknown mineral

Part 1: Investigation Station 1: Physical properties Color: What color is the mineral sample? ____________________________________________________________________________________ Luster: How does the mineral reflect light? __________________________________________________________________________________ Hardness: Put an X through each hardness that you can determine is NOT the hardness of the mineral:

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

What is the Moh’s hardness of the mineral? _________________________________________________________________________________ Streak: What is the color of the powdered mineral? ________________________________________________________________________

Station 2: Density Record the mass of the mineral sample: mass

mineral = _________ g

Record the volume of water in the cylinder BEFORE adding the mineral: volume water

= _________ mL Record the volume in the cylinder AFTER adding the mineral: volume

water + mineral = _________ mL

Volume mineral

is the (volume water+ mineral

) minus (volume water

). Calculate the volume of the mineral:

V = ___________ mL – ___________ mL = ___________ mL

Density mineral

is equal to (mass mineral

) divided by (volume mineral

). Calculate the density of the mineral: d = g

mL = ___________ g/mL

Station 3: Flame test Flame color: What color flame does the mineral produce when burned? ________________________ What cation (element) does this color suggest is present in the mineral? _________________________

Station 4: Acid test CaCO

3 + 2HCl → CO

2 + H

2 O + Ca++ + 2Cl--

Acid test: Did bubbles form when the powdered mineral was placed in acid? Yes No What would cause bubbles to form? _____________________________________________________

Station 5: Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) and elemental analysis Did the nanoscale image of the mineral reveal a crystalline structure at the nano level? Yes No What elements were found in the elemental analysis? ________________________________________

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in this geology lesson. NASA Education also has several labs focused on how these geological samples will be ex- tracted and sent back to Earth, allowing for teachers to use this activity as part of a larger NGSS-aligned unit of space and Earth science.

Evaluate

Students were assessed based on their ability to not just pick the correct rock sample, but had to support their conclusion via their guided notes as to which rock samples they eliminated and why. That is to say, if a student correctly ruled out obsidian, they had correctly completed the tasks at Station 1. If they had correctly eliminated fluorite, they correctly identified that structure did not contain carbonate. Students typically were found to either propose their sample was limestone (correct) or granite (incorrect),

due to similarities in density, acid test, and elemen- tal composition. An example rubric for successful analysis and identification of the unknown mineral is shown in Figure 5. While students can simply dis- cuss how they arrived at their conclusions, there also exists a written assessment opportunity here, where teachers can ensure active participation in the reflec- tion and conclusion by having students write a brief summary of how their data led them to rule out some possibilities while supporting their conclusions.

Conclusion Geology is a big part of the exploration of planets in our solar system and beyond. If given a meaningful narra- tive to appreciate this field, such as the future explora- tion of Mars, the technology it employs, and the careers

Part 2: Analysis Using the data you collected, which rock or mineral from Death Valley did you investigate today? Circle the one that has the most qualities in common with the mineral you investigated.

Obsidian A dense volcanic glass used by early California peoples to make tools, weapons, and art. Formed by a chain of volcanos around 65 million years ago. Colored black, blue, brown, and other colors. Luster is glassy. Hardness of 5. Density 2.6 g/mL. Not crumbly; instead, it breaks into pieces that form a ripple pattern. Elemental makeup of Si, O, Fe, Mg.

Granite A lava rock that formed in parts of Death Valley up to 145 million years ago. Cut and polished, it is commonly used for kitchen counters. In its raw form, granite has a dull to pearly luster. Colored gray, black, orange, pink, and white with variations in a single sample. Hardness of 6–7. White streak. Density 2.65– 2.75 g/mL. Elemental makeup of Ca, Si, O, P, Na, Fe.

| FIGURE 4: Student worksheet (continued) Limestone A rock made from the fossils of the marine shells and coral that lived in the ancient seas of Death Valley. Colored clear, white, tan, gray, light brown, or greenish. Luster is dull to pearly. Hardness of 2–4. White streak. Density 2.3–2.7 g/mL. Elemental makeup of CaCO

3 and Si.

Fluorite A mineral found in mines that were excavated in the 1930s in Death Valley before it was a protected wilderness zone. Colored vibrant purple, red, or green. Luster dull to vitreous. Hardness of 4. White streak. Density 3–3.6 g/mL. Chemical formula CaF

2 .

Strontianite A rare mineral salt formed from hot water that flowed through rocks over millions of years (called hydrothermal circulation). Colored clear, white, gray, light brown. Luster vitreous or greasy. Hardness of 2–4. White streak. Density 3.7 g/mL. Chemical formula SrCO

3 .

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it will provide for, geology can be used as a subject to increase the passion and interest of middle school students in the sciences (Childers and Jones 2015; Shin 2003). This activity, in conjunction with space explora- tion and the Mars Sample Return Program, will be a re- source for middle school educators to help infuse inter- esting, state-of-the-art technology and research projects into their classroom curriculum. Concurrently, having students not just observe but actively participate in the use of the types of scientific equipment they would use in college and beyond provides an exciting oppor- tunity for students to get a glimpse of what careers in science would look like. Blending topics of student in- terest with exciting technological tools could be a real asset for promoting STEM. •

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The authors would like to thank the assisting RAIN tech- nicians. RAIN is a network supported by National Science Foundation grant DUE1204279. The expertise of the NASA Educator Professional Development Collaborative

is greatly appreciated. Thanks to Jill Mayorga and Danyal Dar for preparation of the manuscript. Esteban Bautista is supported by BUILD PODER, funded by the National Institute of General Medical Sciences of the National In- stitutes of Health under award number RL5GM118975.

REFERENCES Ashcroft, J.M., A.O. Cakmak, J. Blatti, E. Bautista, V. Wolf, D. David,

J. Arellano-Jimenez, R. Tsui, R. Hill, A. Klejna, J.S. Smith, G. Glass, T. Suchomski, K.J. Schroeder, R.K. Ehrman. 2018. It’s RAINing : Remotely Accessible Instruments in Nanotechnology to Promote Student Success. Current Issues in Emerging eLearning 5 (1).

Childers, G., and M.G. Jones. 2015. Students as virtual scientists: An exploration of students’ and teachers’ perceived realness of a remote electron microscopy investigation. International Journal of Science Education 37 (15): 2433–52.

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 2017a. https://mars.nasa.gov/ msl.

NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory. 2017b. www.jpl.nasa.gov/ missions/mars-sample-return-msr.

NGSS Lead States. 2013. Next Generation Science Standards: For states, by states. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. www.nextgenscience.org/next-generation-science-standards.

FIGURE 5: Rubric for geology lab

4 Mastery

3 Accomplished

2 Adequate

1 Developing

0 Inadequate

Analysis and identification of unknown mineral

Student correctly identifies limestone (CaCO

3 ) using

analysis of data collected from each station.

Student successfully collected data and correctly analyzed two of the three: calcium ion from the flame test, carbonate from acid test, or correctly calculated density. Successfully chose limestone after imaging and elemental analysis using SEM.

Student correctly identified either calcium ion from the flame test, carbonate from acid test, or correctly calculated density. Was able to determine identity of mineral from the SEM image and elemental analysis.

Student was unable to identify chemical or physical properties of the unknown mineral, but successfully identified limestone using SEM imaging and elemental analysis.

Student was unable to identify chemical or physical properties of the unknown mineral and was unable to determine the identity of limestone using the SEM imaging and elemental analysis.

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Brandon Rodriguez ([email protected]) is the education specialist of the Educator Professional Development Collaborative at the NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena, California. Jared Ashcroft is a chemistry professor and Vanessa Wolf and Svetlana Timberlake are undergraduate students in the Department of Physical Sciences at Pasadena City College in Pasadena, California. Esteban Bautista is an undergraduate student in the Department of Chemistry at East Los Angeles College in Monterey Park, California. James Schifley, James Smith, and M. Josefina Arellano-Jimenez are professors in the Remote Access in Nanotechnology collaborative.

Shin, Y. 2003. Virtual experiment environment design for science education. Proceedings of the 2003 International Conference on Cyberworlds 388–95.

RESOURCES Flame test for RAIN lab—https://youtu.be/qWJev8imLfQ Nano4me.org—nano4me.org/remoteaccess NASA Science: Mars exploration program images—https://

Connecting to the Next Generation Science Standards (NGSS Lead States 2013) • The chart below makes one set of connections between the instruction outlined in this article and the NGSS. Other valid

connections are likely; however, space restrictions prevent us from listing all possibilities.

• The materials, lessons, and activities outlined in the article are just one step toward reaching the performance expectations listed below.

Standard

MS-PS1 Matter and Its Interactions www.nextgenscience.org/dci-arrangement/ms-ps1-matter-and-its-interactions

Performance Expectation

MS-PS1-2. Analyze and interpret data on the properties of substances before and after the substances interact to determine if a chemical change has occurred.

DIMENSIONS CLASSROOM CONNECTIONS

Science and Engineering Practice

Analyzing and Interpreting Data Students use data sources to rule out incorrect possibilities in order to correctly identify an unknown rock.

Disciplinary Core Idea

Structure and Properties of Matter

MS-PS1-2: Each pure substance has characteristic physical and chemical properties (for any bulk quantity under given conditions) that can be used to identify it.

Students are provided an unknown rock sample at the beginning of their investigation and use physical characteristics or chemical changes to identify the unknown rock.

Crosscutting Concept

Patterns Students analyze tests results from an unknown rock sample to determine whether its origin is here on Earth or extraterrestrial.

mars.nasa.gov/multimedia/images NASA Science: Solar system exploration—https://

solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/target NASA Teach—www.jpl.nasa.gov/edu/teach

ONLINE SUPPLEMENTAL MATERIALS Presentation—www.nsta.org/scope1804 Station reference sheets—www.nsta.org/scope1804

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