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Criminal Justice: A Brief Introduction Thirteenth Edition

Chapter 4 Policing: Purpose and Organization

Figure 4.1 The Basic Purposes of Policing in Democratic Societies

Enforcing the Law • Police operate under an official public mandate

requiring them to enforce the law

• This is not their only job

• The majority of police officer time is spent answering nonemergency public service calls

• Only about 10% to 20% of all calls involve situations that actually require a law enforcement response

• Police cannot enforce all the laws

• Police are also expected to support the law

Apprehending Offenders • Some offenders are apprehended during the

investigation of a crime or during/immediately after its commission

• Many offenders are only caught as the result of extensive police work involving investigation

• Criminal investigation – The process of discovering, collecting,

preparing, identifying, and presenting evidence to determine what happened and who is responsible when a crime occurs

Preventing Crime (1 of 2)

• Crime prevention – A proactive approach to the problem of crime – Anticipating, recognizing, and appraising a

crime risk and the initiation of action to eliminate or reduce it

• Techniques: access control, theft-deterrence devices, hot-spot policing, predictive policing, etc.

• Programs: organized efforts that focus resources on reducing a specific form of criminal threat

Preventing Crime (2 of 2)

• Police ability to prevent crimes relies in part on their ability to predict when/where crimes will occur

• Effective prediction allows limited resources to be assigned to the areas with the greatest need (“hot spots”)

• CompStat: – A process of crime analysis and police

management developed by the N Y P D in the mid-1990s

– A form of predictive policing

Preserving the Peace • Virtually limitless police activity that does not only

involve activities that violate the law

• Focus on quality-of-life offenses as crime-reduction and peacekeeping strategy

– Minor law violations that demoralize community residents and businesspeople

– Acts that create physical disorder or reflect social decay

• Broken windows theory of policing

Providing Services • Anyone can mobilize the police simply by calling

them

• 911 calls are prioritized and then relayed to patrol officers, specialized field units, or other emergency personnel

• Some states have adopted nonemergency call numbers (311) in addition to 911

American Policing Today • The organization of American policing is the most

complex in the world

• Three major legislative and judicial jurisdictions – Federal – State – Local

• Each has a variety of police agencies to enforce its laws

• Little uniformity among jurisdictions regarding naming, function, or authority of enforcement agencies

Federal Agencies • Federal law enforcement agencies are distributed

among 14 U.S. government departments and 28 nondepartmental entities

• Federal law enforcement officers are authorized to: – Conduct criminal investigations – Execute search warrants – Make arrests – Carry firearms

The FBI (1 of 2)

• Began in 1908 as the Bureau of Investigation

• Primary mission: – Protect and defend the U.S. against terrorist and

foreign intelligence threats – Uphold and enforce the criminal laws of the United

States – Provide leadership and criminal justice services

• Currently has 13,500 special agents assigned to 56 field offices and 400 satellite offices

• Legats—legal attaché offices operated by the FBI in major cities around the world (London, Paris, etc.)

The FBI (2 of 2)

• Operates the Combined D N A Index System (C O D I S) – Computerized forensic database of DNA profiles

of offenders convicted of serious crimes – Part of National DNA Index System (NDIS)

• F B I Laboratory Division – One of the largest and most comprehensive

crime labs in the world – Provides services throughout the United States

• National Academy Program

The FBI and Counterterrorism • After attacks of 9-11, FBI priorities changed to focus

on preventing terrorist attacks

• FBI Counterterrorism Division collects, analyzes, shares information and critical intelligence with federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies

State Agencies (1 of 2)

• Most were created in late nineteenth and early twentieth century to meet specific needs

• Wide diversity of state policing agencies exist

• Two main models of state policing—centralized and decentralized

State Agencies (2 of 2)

• Centralized – Assist local law enforcement in investigations – Operate a centralized identification bureau – Maintain criminal records repository – Patrol state highways – Provide select training

• Decentralized – Two separate agencies to distinguish between traffic

enforcement and other state-level law enforcement functions

– Usually also have other state-level law enforcement agencies

Local Agencies (1 of 2)

• Includes city and county agencies – Municipal departments, rural sheriff’s

departments, specialized groups (campus police, transit police, etc.)

• Every incorporated municipality has the authority to create its own police force

• Approximately 12,000 municipal departments and over 3,000 sheriff’s departments

• About half employ fewer than ten full-time officers

Local Agencies (2 of 2)

• City police chiefs typically appointed by the major or selected by the city council

• Sheriffs are elected public officials whose agencies are responsible for law enforcement throughout the county

• Sheriff’s departments also have court-related responsibility, including running county jails

Fusion Centers • “Fuse” intelligence from participating agencies to

create a comprehensive threat picture

• A multiagency law enforcement facility designed to enhance cooperative efforts through a coordinated process for collecting, sharing, and analyzing information in order to develop actionable intelligence

• Obtaining necessary security clearances a key problem

Private Protective Services • Independent or proprietary commercial

organizations that provide protective services to employers on a contractual basis

• Major reasons for recent growth in private security – Increase in workplace crime – Increased fear of crime/terrorism – State fiscal crises – Increased public awareness/use of private

security

• May be in part responsible for recent drop in crime rates

Interpol • International Criminal Police Organization

• Began operations in 1946—currently has 192 member nations

• Main purpose: acts as a clearinghouse for information on offenses and suspects believed to operate across national boundaries

• No powers of arrest or search and seizure, no field investigators

Europol • European Police Office—began limited operations in

1994; full operations began in 1999

• Integrated police intelligence-gathering and information dissemination arm of the member nations of the E U

• Mission is to improve effectiveness and cooperation of law enforcement agencies within EU member states

• Works with Interpol on international terrorism, drug trafficking, and human trafficking

Police Administration (1 of 3)

• Police management – Administrative activities that control, direct, and

coordinate police personnel, resources, and activities

• Police managers include sworn law enforcement personnel with administrative authority and civilian personnel

Police Administration (2 of 3)

• Line operations – Field or supervisory activities directly related to

daily police work

• Staff operations – Activities providing support for line operations

(administration, training, etc.)

• Most police agencies include both line and staff operations

• Only the smallest departments have line operations

Figure 4.3 Typical Organizational Chart of a Local Police Department

Police Administration (3 of 3)

• Chain of command – Order of authority within a department—clarifies

who reports to whom

• Unity of command – Every officer has only one supervisor

• Span of control – The number of police personnel or the number

of units supervised by a particular officer

Policing Epochs and Styles (1 of 5)

• The Political Era (1840s–1930) – Close ties between police and public officials – Police tended to serve the interests of powerful

politicians and their cronies

• The Reform Era (1930–1970s) – Pride in professional crime-fighting – Focus on solving “traditional” crimes

Policing Epochs and Styles (2 of 5)

• The Community Policing Era (1970s–Today) – Stresses the service role – Envisions a partnership between the police and

their communities

• The New Era (2001–Today) – Came about because of 9-11 terrorist attacks,

still evolving – Homeland security, terrorism prevention,

intelligence-led policing, evidence-based policing (EBP)

Policing Epochs and Styles (3 of 5)

• Wilson’s three policing styles – Watchman style—characteristic of political era – Legalistic style—similar to professional crime

fighting of reform era – Service style—common today

• Characterize nearly all municipal agencies in the United States

• Some departments are a mixture of several styles

Policing Epochs and Styles (4 of 5)

• The Watchman Style of Policing – Primarily concerned with order maintenance – Focuses on controlling illegal and disruptive

behavior – Considerable use of discretion

Policing Epochs and Styles (5 of 5)

• The Legalistic Style of Policing – Enforces the letter of the law – Hands-off approach to behaviors that are simply

bothersome

• The Service Style of Policing – Meets the needs of the community – Police see themselves more as helpers than as

soldiers in a “war on crime”

Police–Community Relations • Area of police activity that recognizes the need for

the community and the police to work together effectively

• Based on the notion that the police derive their legitimacy from the community they serve

• Movement away from police emphasis on the apprehension of law violators toward increasing the level of positive police–citizen interaction

Team Policing • The reorganization of conventional patrol strategies

into “an integrated and versatile police team assigned to a fixed district”

• Concept some communities experimented with during the 1960s and 1970s

• Officers were given considerable authority in processing complaints, from receipt through resolution

Strategic Policing • Retains traditional crime-fighting goals but enlarges

the enforcement target to include nontraditional kinds of criminals

• A holdover from the Reform Era

• Emphasizes increased capacity to deal with crimes that are not well controlled by other methods

• Uses innovative enforcement techniques

Problem-Solving Policing • Assumes many crimes are caused by existing social

conditions

• Controls crime by uncovering and addressing underlying social problems

• Uses community resources

• Attempts to involve citizens in crime prevention through education, negotiation, and conflict management

Community Policing (1 of 2)

• A philosophy that promotes organizational strategies which support the systematic use of partnerships and problem-solving techniques

• Partnership between the police and the community

• Also called community-oriented policing

Community Policing (2 of 2)

• Involves at least one of four key elements – Community-based crime prevention – Reorientation of patrol activities to emphasize

the importance of nonemergency services – Increased police accountability to the public – Decentralization of command, including greater

use of civilians at all levels of police decision- making

• Sheriffs’ departments often refer to these programs as neighborhood-oriented policing

Community Policing and Antiterrorism • Community policing is a natural conduit for

information gathering and the development of counterterrorism intelligence

• Information gathered by state/local departments can be funneled to federal agencies that have been charged with developing national security intelligence

Critique of Community Policing • Community policing has become the major theme

of police reform

• Community policing plagued with problems – Difficult to determine program effectiveness or

citizen satisfaction with the program – Ambiguity surrounding the concept of

community – Not all police officers or managers are willing to

accept nontraditional images of police work. – Efforts to promote community policing can

demoralize the department

Evidence-Based Policing (1 of 2)

• Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (L E A A) – A now-defunct federal agency established under

Title I of the 1968 Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act to funnel federal funding to state and local agencies

– L E A A funding led to research-rich years from1969 to 1982

– Established a tradition of program evaluation within police-management circles

Evidence-Based Policing (2 of 2)

• LEAA established a tradition of program evaluation within police management circles

• Scientific police management – The application of social science techniques to

the study of police administration for the purpose of increasing effectiveness, reducing the frequency of citizen complaints, and enhancing the efficient use of available resources

The Kansas City Experiment (1 of 2)

• The first large-scale scientific study of law enforcement practices

• Focused on the practice of preventive patrol

• Study divided patrol beats into proactive, reactive, and control zones

• Study found no significant differences in crime rate or citizen fear of crime

• Second Kansas City study focused on response time – Little effect on citizen satisfaction or arrest of

suspects

The Kansas City Experiment (2 of 2)

• Although the study called into question some basic assumptions about patrol, it remains the backbone of police work

• Directed patrol – New police-management strategy designed to

increase the productivity of patrol officers through the scientific analysis and evaluation of patrol techniques

– Put the most officers on the street where and when crime is most prevalent

Evidence-Based Policing Today • Involves the use of the best available research on

the outcomes of police work to implement guidelines and evaluate agencies, units, and officers.

• E B P uses research to evaluate current practices

• EBP model called the single “most powerful force for change” in policing today

• Successful law enforcement executives must be consumers and appliers of research

– Do not have to be researchers but must use research in their everyday work

Discretion and the Individual Officer • Police discretion

– The exercise of choice by law enforcement officers in their daily activities

• Patrolling officers often decide against a strict enforcement of the law, preferring instead to handle situations informally

• Widest exercise of discretion more likely in routine situations involving relatively less serious violations of the law

Figure 4.5 Discretion and the Individual Officer

Criminal Justice: A Brief Introduction
Slide 2
Enforcing the Law
Apprehending Offenders
Preventing Crime (1 of 2)
Preventing Crime (2 of 2)
Preserving the Peace
Providing Services
American Policing Today
Federal Agencies
The FBI (1 of 2)
The FBI (2 of 2)
The FBI and Counterterrorism
State Agencies (1 of 2)
State Agencies (2 of 2)
Local Agencies (1 of 2)
Local Agencies (2 of 2)
Fusion Centers
Private Protective Services
Interpol
Europol
Police Administration (1 of 3)
Police Administration (2 of 3)
Slide 24
Police Administration (3 of 3)
Policing Epochs and Styles (1 of 5)
Policing Epochs and Styles (2 of 5)
Policing Epochs and Styles (3 of 5)
Policing Epochs and Styles (4 of 5)
Policing Epochs and Styles (5 of 5)
Police–Community Relations
Team Policing
Strategic Policing
Problem-Solving Policing
Community Policing (1 of 2)
Community Policing (2 of 2)
Community Policing and Antiterrorism
Critique of Community Policing
Evidence-Based Policing (1 of 2)
Evidence-Based Policing (2 of 2)
The Kansas City Experiment (1 of 2)
The Kansas City Experiment (2 of 2)
Evidence-Based Policing Today
Discretion and the Individual Officer
Figure 4.5 Discretion and the Individual Officer
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