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Criminal Justice: A Brief Introduction

Thirteenth Edition

Chapter 4

Policing: Purpose and Organization

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Figure 4.1 The Basic Purposes of Policing in Democratic Societies

Source: Pearson Education, Inc.

Enforcing the Law

Police operate under an official public mandate requiring them to enforce the law

This is not their only job

The majority of police officer time is spent answering nonemergency public service calls

Only about 10% to 20% of all calls involve situations that actually require a law enforcement response

Police cannot enforce all the laws

Police are also expected to support the law

Source: Victor Kappeler et al., The Mythology of Crime and Criminal Justice, 1996 (Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press).

Apprehending Offenders

Some offenders are apprehended during the investigation of a crime or during/immediately after its commission

Many offenders are only caught as the result of extensive police work involving investigation

Criminal investigation

The process of discovering, collecting, preparing, identifying, and presenting evidence to determine what happened and who is responsible when a crime occurs

Preventing Crime (1 of 2)

Crime prevention

A proactive approach to the problem of crime

Anticipating, recognizing, and appraising a crime risk and the initiation of action to eliminate or reduce it

Techniques: access control, theft-deterrence devices, hot-spot policing, predictive policing, etc.

Programs: organized efforts that focus resources on reducing a specific form of criminal threat

Preventing Crime (2 of 2)

Police ability to prevent crimes relies in part on their ability to predict when/where crimes will occur

Effective prediction allows limited resources to be assigned to the areas with the greatest need (“hot spots”)

CompStat:

A process of crime analysis and police management developed by the N Y P D in the mid-1990s

A form of predictive policing

Preserving the Peace

Virtually limitless police activity that does not only involve activities that violate the law

Focus on quality-of-life offenses as crime-reduction and peacekeeping strategy

Minor law violations that demoralize community residents and businesspeople

Acts that create physical disorder or reflect social decay

Broken windows theory of policing

Providing Services

Anyone can mobilize the police simply by calling them

911 calls are prioritized and then relayed to patrol officers, specialized field units, or other emergency personnel

Some states have adopted nonemergency call numbers (311) in addition to 911

American Policing Today

The organization of American policing is the most complex in the world

Three major legislative and judicial jurisdictions

Federal

State

Local

Each has a variety of police agencies to enforce its laws

Little uniformity among jurisdictions regarding naming, function, or authority of enforcement agencies

Federal Agencies

Federal law enforcement agencies are distributed among 14 U.S. government departments and 28 nondepartmental entities

Federal law enforcement officers are authorized to:

Conduct criminal investigations

Execute search warrants

Make arrests

Carry firearms

The FBI (1 of 2)

Began in 1908 as the Bureau of Investigation

Primary mission:

Protect and defend the U.S. against terrorist and foreign intelligence threats

Uphold and enforce the criminal laws of the United States

Provide leadership and criminal justice services

Currently has 13,500 special agents assigned to 56 field offices and 400 satellite offices

Legats—legal attaché offices operated by the FBI in major cities around the world (London, Paris, etc.)

The FBI (2 of 2)

Operates the Combined D N A Index System (C O D I S)

Computerized forensic database of DNA profiles of offenders convicted of serious crimes

Part of National DNA Index System (NDIS)

F B I Laboratory Division

One of the largest and most comprehensive crime labs in the world

Provides services throughout the United States

National Academy Program

The FBI and Counterterrorism

After attacks of 9-11, FBI priorities changed to focus on preventing terrorist attacks

FBI Counterterrorism Division collects, analyzes, shares information and critical intelligence with federal, state, and local law enforcement agencies

State Agencies (1 of 2)

Most were created in late nineteenth and early twentieth century to meet specific needs

Wide diversity of state policing agencies exist

Two main models of state policing—centralized and decentralized

State Agencies (2 of 2)

Centralized

Assist local law enforcement in investigations

Operate a centralized identification bureau

Maintain criminal records repository

Patrol state highways

Provide select training

Decentralized

Two separate agencies to distinguish between traffic enforcement and other state-level law enforcement functions

Usually also have other state-level law enforcement agencies

Local Agencies (1 of 2)

Includes city and county agencies

Municipal departments, rural sheriff’s departments, specialized groups (campus police, transit police, etc.)

Every incorporated municipality has the authority to create its own police force

Approximately 12,000 municipal departments and over 3,000 sheriff’s departments

About half employ fewer than ten full-time officers

Source: Brian A. Reaves, Census of State and Local Law Enforcement Agencies, 2008 (Washington, DC: Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2011).

Local Agencies (2 of 2)

City police chiefs typically appointed by the major or selected by the city council

Sheriffs are elected public officials whose agencies are responsible for law enforcement throughout the county

Sheriff’s departments also have court-related responsibility, including running county jails

Fusion Centers

“Fuse” intelligence from participating agencies to create a comprehensive threat picture

A multiagency law enforcement facility designed to enhance cooperative efforts through a coordinated process for collecting, sharing, and analyzing information in order to develop actionable intelligence

Obtaining necessary security clearances a key problem

Private Protective Services

Independent or proprietary commercial organizations that provide protective services to employers on a contractual basis

Major reasons for recent growth in private security

Increase in workplace crime

Increased fear of crime/terrorism

State fiscal crises

Increased public awareness/use of private security

May be in part responsible for recent drop in crime rates

Interpol

International Criminal Police Organization

Began operations in 1946—currently has 192 member nations

Main purpose: acts as a clearinghouse for information on offenses and suspects believed to operate across national boundaries

No powers of arrest or search and seizure, no field investigators

Europol

European Police Office—began limited operations in 1994; full operations began in 1999

Integrated police intelligence-gathering and information dissemination arm of the member nations of the E U

Mission is to improve effectiveness and cooperation of law enforcement agencies within EU member states

Works with Interpol on international terrorism, drug trafficking, and human trafficking

Police Administration (1 of 3)

Police management

Administrative activities that control, direct, and coordinate police personnel, resources, and activities

Police managers include sworn law enforcement personnel with administrative authority and civilian personnel

Police Administration (2 of 3)

Line operations

Field or supervisory activities directly related to daily police work

Staff operations

Activities providing support for line operations (administration, training, etc.)

Most police agencies include both line and staff operations

Only the smallest departments have line operations

Figure 4.3 Typical Organizational Chart of a Local Police Department

Police Administration (3 of 3)

Chain of command

Order of authority within a department—clarifies who reports to whom

Unity of command

Every officer has only one supervisor

Span of control

The number of police personnel or the number of units supervised by a particular officer

Policing Epochs and Styles (1 of 5)

The Political Era (1840s–1930)

Close ties between police and public officials

Police tended to serve the interests of powerful politicians and their cronies

The Reform Era (1930–1970s)

Pride in professional crime-fighting

Focus on solving “traditional” crimes

Policing Epochs and Styles (2 of 5)

The Community Policing Era (1970s–Today)

Stresses the service role

Envisions a partnership between the police and their communities

The New Era (2001–Today)

Came about because of 9-11 terrorist attacks, still evolving

Homeland security, terrorism prevention, intelligence-led policing, evidence-based policing (EBP)

Policing Epochs and Styles (3 of 5)

Wilson’s three policing styles

Watchman style—characteristic of political era

Legalistic style—similar to professional crime fighting of reform era

Service style—common today

Characterize nearly all municipal agencies in the United States

Some departments are a mixture of several styles

Policing Epochs and Styles (4 of 5)

The Watchman Style of Policing

Primarily concerned with order maintenance

Focuses on controlling illegal and disruptive behavior

Considerable use of discretion

Policing Epochs and Styles (5 of 5)

The Legalistic Style of Policing

Enforces the letter of the law

Hands-off approach to behaviors that are simply bothersome

The Service Style of Policing

Meets the needs of the community

Police see themselves more as helpers than as soldiers in a “war on crime”

Police–Community Relations

Area of police activity that recognizes the need for the community and the police to work together effectively

Based on the notion that the police derive their legitimacy from the community they serve

Movement away from police emphasis on the apprehension of law violators toward increasing the level of positive police–citizen interaction

Team Policing

The reorganization of conventional patrol strategies into “an integrated and versatile police team assigned to a fixed district”

Concept some communities experimented with during the 1960s and 1970s

Officers were given considerable authority in processing complaints, from receipt through resolution

Strategic Policing

Retains traditional crime-fighting goals but enlarges the enforcement target to include nontraditional kinds of criminals

A holdover from the Reform Era

Emphasizes increased capacity to deal with crimes that are not well controlled by other methods

Uses innovative enforcement techniques

Problem-Solving Policing

Assumes many crimes are caused by existing social conditions

Controls crime by uncovering and addressing underlying social problems

Uses community resources

Attempts to involve citizens in crime prevention through education, negotiation, and conflict management

Community Policing (1 of 2)

A philosophy that promotes organizational strategies which support the systematic use of partnerships and problem-solving techniques

Partnership between the police and the community

Also called community-oriented policing

Community Policing (2 of 2)

Involves at least one of four key elements

Community-based crime prevention

Reorientation of patrol activities to emphasize the importance of nonemergency services

Increased police accountability to the public

Decentralization of command, including greater use of civilians at all levels of police decision-making

Sheriffs’ departments often refer to these programs as neighborhood-oriented policing

Community Policing and Antiterrorism

Community policing is a natural conduit for information gathering and the development of counterterrorism intelligence

Information gathered by state/local departments can be funneled to federal agencies that have been charged with developing national security intelligence

Critique of Community Policing

Community policing has become the major theme of police reform

Community policing plagued with problems

Difficult to determine program effectiveness or citizen satisfaction with the program

Ambiguity surrounding the concept of community

Not all police officers or managers are willing to accept nontraditional images of police work.

Efforts to promote community policing can demoralize the department

Evidence-Based Policing (1 of 2)

Law Enforcement Assistance Administration (L E A A)

A now-defunct federal agency established under Title I of the 1968 Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act to funnel federal funding to state and local agencies

L E A A funding led to research-rich years from1969 to 1982

Established a tradition of program evaluation within police-management circles

Evidence-Based Policing (2 of 2)

LEAA established a tradition of program evaluation within police management circles

Scientific police management

The application of social science techniques to the study of police administration for the purpose of increasing effectiveness, reducing the frequency of citizen complaints, and enhancing the efficient use of available resources

The Kansas City Experiment (1 of 2)

The first large-scale scientific study of law enforcement practices

Focused on the practice of preventive patrol

Study divided patrol beats into proactive, reactive, and control zones

Study found no significant differences in crime rate or citizen fear of crime

Second Kansas City study focused on response time

Little effect on citizen satisfaction or arrest of suspects

The Kansas City Experiment (2 of 2)

Although the study called into question some basic assumptions about patrol, it remains the backbone of police work

Directed patrol

New police-management strategy designed to increase the productivity of patrol officers through the scientific analysis and evaluation of patrol techniques

Put the most officers on the street where and when crime is most prevalent

Evidence-Based Policing Today

Involves the use of the best available research on the outcomes of police work to implement guidelines and evaluate agencies, units, and officers.

E B P uses research to evaluate current practices

EBP model called the single “most powerful force for change” in policing today

Successful law enforcement executives must be consumers and appliers of research

Do not have to be researchers but must use research in their everyday work

Discretion and the Individual Officer

Police discretion

The exercise of choice by law enforcement officers in their daily activities

Patrolling officers often decide against a strict enforcement of the law, preferring instead to handle situations informally

Widest exercise of discretion more likely in routine situations involving relatively less serious violations of the law

criminal justices

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