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Criminal Justice: A Brief Introduction

Thirteenth Edition

Chapter 2 The Crime Picture

Crime Data and Social Policy

• Crime statistics provide an overview of criminal activity

• A statistical picture of crime can be a powerful tool for creating social policy

• The objectivity of crime statistics has been questioned

• Public opinion about crime is not always realistic and is greatly influenced by the news media

The Collection of Crime Data

• Two major sources of crime statistics – Uniform Crime Reporting Program (U C R /N I B R S),

run by the FBI – National Crime Victimization Survey (N C V S), run

by the Bureau of Justice Statistics

• Offender self-reports – Based on surveys asking respondents to reveal

involvement in illegal activity – Not national in scope, not conducted regularly

Figure 2.1The Criminal Justice Funnel

Development of the U C R Program (1 of 2)

• Began in 1930 when Congress designated the F B I to implement a national crime statistics program

– In the first year, the F B I received reports from 400 cities in 43 states, covering 20 million people

– Today, approximately 18,000 agencies provide information

• Uses standardized definitions of offenses to ensure uniformity in reporting

Development of the U C R Program (2 of 2)

• Originally included a Crime Index to allow comparisons over time

• Made up of 7 Part I offenses – Murder, forcible rape, robbery, aggravated

assault, burglary, larceny-theft, and motor vehicle theft

– An eighth Part I crime, arson, was added in 1979

• Crime Index skewed by large numbers of larceny- theft offenses

• The Crime Index was discontinued in 2004

The National Incident-Based Reporting System (N I B R S) (1 of 2)

• Development initiated in 1988

• A significant redesign of the original U C R Program

• Incident-driven, not summary-based

• Gathers many more details about each criminal incident

• 8 Part I offenses replaced with 52 Group A offenses

The National Incident-Based Reporting System (N I B R S) (2 of 2)

• FBI began accepting crime data in NIBRS format in January 1989.

• The NIBRS format has not been fully adopted and changes continue to be made.

• Major advantages of N I B R S

– Sheer increase in volume of data collected – Ability to break down and combine crime

offense data

Table 2.1 Differences between Traditional U C R and Enhanced U C R/ N I B R S Reporting (1 of 2)

Traditional U C R Enhanced U C R/N I B R S

Consists of monthly aggregate crime counts

Consists of individual incident records for the eight major crimes and 38 other offenses, with details on offense, victim, offender, and property involved

Records one offense per incident, as determined by the hierarchy rule, which suppresses counts of lesser offenses in multiple-offense incidents

Records each offense occurring in an incident

Does not distinguish between attempted and completed crimes

Distinguishes between attempted and completed crimes

Collects assault information in flve categories

Restructures definition of assault

Table 2.1 Differences between Traditional U C R and Enhanced U C R/ N I B R S Reporting (2 of 2)

Traditional U C R Enhanced U C R/N I B R S

Collects weapon information for murder, robbery, and aggravated assault

Collects weapon information for all violent offenses

Provides counts on arrests for the eight major crimes and 21 other offenses

Provides details on arrests for the eight major crimes and 49 other offenses

Distinguishes between personal (violent) and property crimes

General categories of crime consist of crimes against persons, property, and society

Sees robbery as a personal crime Classifies robbery as a properly crime

Historical Trends (1 of 4)

• The first major shift in crime rates occurred in the early 1940s

– Crime decreased due to the large number of young men who entered military service during W W I I

Historical Trends (2 of 4)

• The second shift occurred between 1960 and 1989 – Dramatic increase in most forms of crime – Postwar baby boomers reaching crime-prone

age – Growing police professionalization increased the

number of reports – Tumult of the 1960s – Increase in drug-related criminal activity – Blurring of social norms

Historical Trends (3 of 4)

• The third shift occurred between 1990 and 2017 – Significant decrease in rates of most major

crimes – Strict laws, expanded justice system – National efforts to combat crime, better

prepared agencies, innovative police programs – Strong victims’ movement – Sentencing reform and “get tough on crime”

initiatives – “War on drugs” – Advances in forensic science technology

Historical Trends (4 of 4)

• A fourth shift in crime trends may be on the horizon – Economic uncertainty, increasing numbers of

ex-convicts back on the streets, increased teen populations and gang activity

– Social disorganization due to natural disasters – Mass shootings, inner-city murders, increasing

influence of gangs

U C R/N I B R S in Transition (1 of 2)

• F B I crime clock illustrates crime frequency

• Crime clock includes two categories of offenses – Violent/personal crimes: murder, forcible rape,

robbery, aggravated assault – Property crimes: burglary, larceny-theft, motor

vehicle theft, burglary, arson

• Based on crimes reported to or discovered by the police

U C R/N I B R S in Transition (2 of 2)

• John Augustus of Boston, Massachusetts, is recognized as the father of probation

– Volunteered to supervise over 1,800 offenders to alieve jails

• Massachusetts was the first state to pass a probation statute in 1878

– Remaining states quickly followed

Figure 2.4 The F B I Crime Clock, Which Shows the Frequency of the Commission of Major Crimes in 2017

Table 2.2 Major Crimes Known to the Police, 2017

Offense Number Rate per 100,000

Clearance Rate (%)

Personal/Violent Crimes

Murder 17,284 5.3 61.6

Rape 99,856 30.7 34.5

Robbery 319,356 98.0 29.7

Aggravated assault 810,825 248.9 53.3

Property Crimes

Burglary 1,401,84 0

430.4 13.5

Larceny-theft 5,519,10 7

1,694.4 19.2

Motor vehicle theft 773,139 237.4 13.7

Arsona 36,660 13.2 21.7

U.S. Total 8,978,06 7

2,758.3

a Arson can be classified as either a property crime or a violent crime, depending on whether personal injury or loss of life results from its commission. It is generally classified as a property crime, however. Arson statistics are incomplete for 2017, and are not included in other annual crime rate calculations in this chapter.

Murder (1 of 2)

• The unlawful killing of a human being

– First-degree murder: criminal homicide that is planned

– Second-degree murder: intentional killing but generally unplanned

• Smallest numerical category in Part I offenses

• Most commonly committed using firearms, especially handguns

Murder (2 of 2)

• Multiple murders – Spree killings: killings at two or more locations

with almost no time break between murders – Mass murder: killing four or more victims at one

location, within one event – Serial murder: killing several victims in three or

more separate events

• Murder has the highest clearance rate of any major crime

Rape

• Unlawful sexual intercourse achieved through force and without consent

• U C R definition changed in 2012 to be gender- neutral

• Statistics include attempted rape by force or threat of force, but not statutory rape

• Least reported of all violent crimes

• Most rapes committed by someone known to the victim

Robbery

• The unlawful taking or attempted taking of property that is in the immediate possession of another by force or violence and/or by putting the victim in fear

• Strong-arm robbery occurs through intimidation, rather than with a weapon

• Street/highway robbery occurs outdoors

• Most common targets are individuals

Figure 2.5 Robbery Types, 2017

Aggravated Assault

• Two types of assaults

– Simple (misdemeanor)

– Aggravated (felony)—involves weapon or victim requires medical assistance

• Mostly committed using blunt objects or with hands, feet, and fists

• Assailants often known to victims, making this crime relatively easy to solve

Burglary

• The unlawful entry of a structure to commit a felony or theft

• Considered a property crime although it may involve personal confrontation

• U C R/N I B R S uses three classifications

– Forcible entry

– Unlawful entry where no force is used

– Attempted forcible entry

• Clearance rate low

Larceny-Theft

• The unlawful taking or attempted taking of property from the possession of another

• Most frequently reported Part I offense

• May be the most underreported crime category because small thefts rarely come to the attention of the police

Figure 2.7 Larceny-Theft Distribution, 2017

Identity Fraud: A New Kind of Larceny

• Involves obtaining credit, merchandise, or services by fraudulent personal representation

• Fastest-growing type of crime in America

• Became a federal crime in 1998 with the passage of the Identity Theft and Assumption Deterrence Act

• May be perpetrated through the use of high technology

Motor Vehicle Theft

• The theft or attempted theft of a motor vehicle, which includes any self-propelled vehicle that runs on land and not on rails

• Very highly reported because insurance companies usually require police reports before reimbursing car owners

• Low clearance rate

• Carjacking involves violence

Arson

• Any willful or malicious burning, with or without intent to defraud, a dwelling, public building, motor vehicle, etc.

• Not all agencies submit arson data and many provide incomplete information

• Arson data only includes fires known to have been willfully or maliciously set

• Clearance rate low

Part II Offenses

• Part II offenses are generally less serious than Part I offenses

• Include a number of social-order (“victimless”) crimes

• U C R statistics only include recorded arrests, not crimes reported to the police

Table 2.3 U C R/N I B R S Part II Offenses, 2017 Offense Category Number of Arrests

Simple assaults 1,062,370

Forgery and counterfeiting 55,604

Fraud 124,232

Embezzlement 15,967

Stolen property (e.g., receiving) 98,660

Vandalism 188,350

Weapons (e.g., carrying) 164,984

Prostitution and related offenses 36,248

Sex offenses (e.g., statutory rape) 48,525

Drug-abuse violations 1,632,921

Gambling 3,237

Offenses against the family (e.g., nonsupport) 94,062

Driving under the influence 990,678

Liquor-law violations 207,332

Public drunkenness 366,824

Disorderly conduct 353,151

Vagrancy 23,321

Curfew violations/loitering 30,131

Source: Federal Bureau of Investigation, Crime in the United States, 2017 (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 2018).

The National Crime Victimization Survey (1 of 2)

• Based on victim self-reports

• First conducted in 1972

• Designed to uncover information on the dark figure of crime—crimes that are not reported to the police and that are unknown to officials

• Early victim self-report data showed that crimes of all types were more prevalent that U C R statistics indicated

The National Crime Victimization Survey (2 of 2)

• Involves a survey of a nationally representative sample of about 90,000 households

• Only individuals aged 12+ are interviewed

• Collects data on crimes against individuals and households

• Includes data on rape, sexual assault, robbery, assault, burglary, personal and household larceny, motor vehicle theft—definitions similar to those used by U C R/N I B R S

Comparisons of the U C R and the N C V S (1 of 2)

• Difficulties with U C R/N I B R S Program – Not all victims report crime – Some crime types rarely reported

– High-tech and computer crime may be underrepresented

– Victim reports may be inaccurate

– Reports filtered through multiple levels

– Only include data that creators consider appropriate

Comparisons of the U C R and the N C V S (2 of 2)

• Difficulties with N C V S – Responses subjective, respondents provide personal

interpretations – Some victims less willing to respond

– Victims may be afraid to respond or may invent victimizations

– No attempt to validate information against police records or other sources

– Only includes data creators consider appropriate

Special Categories of Crime

• Crime Typology – A classification of crimes along a particular dimension – Used in the study and description of criminal behavior

– Social relevance is a central distinguishing feature of any meaningful typology

Crime against Women

• Women less frequently victimized in all personal crime categories except rape

– Women more likely to be injured during violent victimization

– More likely to modify the way they life because of threat of crime

• Major issues include date rape, familial incest, spousal abuse, stalking, and exploitation through social-order offenses such as prostitution and pornography

The Violence against Women Act (1 of 2)

• Title IV of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994

• Increased federal penalties for repeat sex offenders, requires mandatory restitution for sex crimes

• Provided grants to combat violent crimes against women

• Creation of hotlines, information, training programs for professionals providing assistance to victims of sexual assault

The Violence against Women Act (2 of 2)

• Increased grants for battered women’s shelters

• Encouraged arrest in cases of domestic violence

• Provided for creation of national domestic-violence hotline

• Recent reauthorizations included new provisions

– Protections for prospective foreign brides immigrating to the United States

– Protections for gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender Americans

Crime against the Elderly

• Criminal victimization declines with age

• Older people (65+) generally experience the lowest rate of victimization of any age group

• The elderly face special kinds of victimization that rarely affect younger adults

– Risk of abuse and neglect by caregivers – More often targeted by con artists

Hate Crime

• A criminal offense motivated by the offender’s bias against a race, religion, disability, sexual orientation, or ethnicity/national origin

• Most common motivation is racial bias, most common offense is intimidation

• Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act (2010)—expanded federal definition to include crimes based on gender identity or disability

• Sometimes called “bias crimes”

Figure 2.8 Motivation of Hate-Crime Offenders, 2017

Corporate and White-Collar Crime (1 of 2)

• Identification doctrine – Corporations can be treated as separate legal

entities and convicted of crimes

• Corporate crime: – A violation of criminal statute by a corporate

entity or by its executives, employees, or agents for the benefit of the corporation

Corporate and White-Collar Crime (2 of 2)

• White-collar crime – Financially motivated nonviolent crime

committed by business and government professionals

• Sarbanes–Oxley Act (2002) – Federal law creating tough provisions designed

to deter and punish corporate fraud and corruption

Organized Crime

• Organized crime – The unlawful activities of the members of a

highly organized, disciplined association engaged in supplying illegal goods or services

• Transnational organized crime – Unlawful activity undertaken and supported by

organized criminal groups operating across national boundaries

Gun Crime

• Supreme Court has come down in support of the Second Amendment right to bear arms

• Legislation restricting gun ownership – 1993 Brady Handgun Violence Prevention Act – 1994 Violent Crime Control and Law

Enforcement Act – 1996 Domestic Violence Offender Gun Ban – 2004 Protection of Lawful Commerce in Firearms

Act

Drug Crime

• Drug crimes continued to rise in early twenty-first century while rates of other crimes decreased

• Increasing arrests led to significant growth in prison populations

• Opioid abuse has been declared a national public health emergency

• Drug abuse linked to other serious crimes

• Legalization of medical marijuana

Figure 2.9 Americans’ Views on Legalizing Marijuana

Cybercrime

• Crimes committed using computers and computer technology

• Many computer crimes are traditional offenses that use technology, rather than new forms of offending

• Key concerns include malware such as computer viruses, spam, and phishing

Terrorism

• A violent act or an act dangerous to human life in violation of the criminal laws of the United States or of any state, committed to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment thereof in furtherance of political or social objectives

• Became a primary concern after the attacks on September 11, 2001

Types of Terrorism

• Domestic terrorism – Offenders based within the United States, acts

directed against U. S. government or population

• International terrorism – Offenders have connection with foreign power

or activities transcend national boundaries

• Cyberterrorism – Using high technology to plan and carry out

terrorist attacks

Organization and Scope of Terrorist Groups

• Top tier groups: groups like ISIS, al-Qaeda

• Middle tier groups—most complex, includes small groups with ties to an established terrorist organization but are largely self-directed

• Bottom tier groups—homegrown extremists

Crime in International Context

• Criminal activity has become big business around the world

• Transnational offenses – Unlawful activity that occurs across national

boundaries – Includes drug running, human trafficking and

smuggling, cybercrime, money laundering, and more “traditional” forms of crime

Criminal Justice: A Brief Introduction
Crime Data and Social Policy
The Collection of Crime Data
Figure 2.1The Criminal Justice Funnel
Development of the U C R Program (1 of 2)
Development of the U C R Program (2 of 2)
Slide 7
Slide 8
Slide 9
Slide 10
Historical Trends (1 of 4)
Historical Trends (2 of 4)
Historical Trends (3 of 4)
Historical Trends (4 of 4)
U C R/N I B R S in Transition (1 of 2)
U C R/N I B R S in Transition (2 of 2)
Slide 17
Table 2.2 Major Crimes Known to the Police, 2017
Murder (1 of 2)
Murder (2 of 2)
Rape
Robbery
Figure 2.5 Robbery Types, 2017
Aggravated Assault
Burglary
Larceny-Theft
Figure 2.7 Larceny-Theft Distribution, 2017
Identity Fraud: A New Kind of Larceny
Motor Vehicle Theft
Arson
Part II Offenses
Table 2.3 U C R/N I B R S Part II Offenses, 2017
The National Crime Victimization Survey (1 of 2)
The National Crime Victimization Survey (2 of 2)
Comparisons of the U C R and the N C V S (1 of 2)
Comparisons of the U C R and the N C V S (2 of 2)
Special Categories of Crime
Crime against Women
The Violence against Women Act (1 of 2)
The Violence against Women Act (2 of 2)
Crime against the Elderly
Hate Crime
Figure 2.8 Motivation of Hate-Crime Offenders, 2017
Corporate and White-Collar Crime (1 of 2)
Corporate and White-Collar Crime (2 of 2)
Organized Crime
Gun Crime
Drug Crime
Figure 2.9 Americans’ Views on Legalizing Marijuana
Cybercrime
Terrorism
Types of Terrorism
Organization and Scope of Terrorist Groups
Crime in International Context
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