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Theories of Social Process and Social Development

Criminology Today

An Integrated Introduction

CHAPTER

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Perspective of Social Interaction

Social process theories

Depend on the process of interaction between individuals and society

Everyone has the potential to violate the law.

Criminality not an innate characteristic

Learned through socialization

Social development theories

Integrated perspective

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Figure 8–1 Principles of Social Process and Social Development Theories Source: Schmalleger, Frank, Criminology. Printed and electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Types of Social Process Approaches

Social learning theory

Social control theory

Labeling theory

Reintegrative shaming

Dramaturgical perspective

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Differential Association

Edwin Sutherland

Crime is learned through a process of differential association with others who communicate criminal values and advocate the commission of crimes.

Suggests crime is not substantially different from other forms of behavior

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Key Principles

Criminal behavior is learned.

Criminal behavior is learned in interaction with others in a process of communication.

The principle part of the learning of criminal behavior occurs within intimate personal groups.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Key Principles

The learning includes techniques of committing crimes and the specific direction of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes.

The specific direction of motives and drives is learned from definitions of the legal codes as favorable or unfavorable.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Key Principles

A person becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to law violation over those unfavorable to law violation.

Differential associations may vary in frequency, duration, priority, and intensity.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Key Principles

The process of learning criminal behavior involves the same mechanisms involved in other learning.

While criminal behavior is an expression of general needs and values, it is not explained by those needs and values.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Differential Association-Reinforcement Theory

Robert Burgess and Ronald Akers added reinforcement to differential association theory.

The same learning process produces both conforming and deviant behavior

Primary learning mechanisms

Instrumental conditioning

Imitation

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Differential Association-Reinforcement Theory

Akers' social structure–social learning theory explains crime as a function of learning within a social structure.

Learning is the mediating process through which the environment causes crime.

Location in the social structure is a major determinant of how one is socialized and what one will learn.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Differential Identification Theory

Daniel Glaser

A person pursues criminal behavior to the extent that he identifies with real or imaginary persons from whose perspective his criminal behavior seems acceptable.

Key is symbolic process of identification

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Social Control Theories

Seek identifying factors that keep people from committing crimes.

Focus on the process through which integration with positive institutions and individuals develops.

Ask why people obey rules instead of breaking them.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Containment Theory

Walter Reckless

Crime is the consequence of social pressures to become involved in crime and failure to resist such pressures.

Compares crime to biological immune response

Sickness and crime result from failure of internal and external control mechanisms.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Figure 8–2 A Diagrammatic Representation of Containment Theory

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Delinquency and Self-Esteem

Howard Kaplan's self-derogation theory of delinquency

People who are ridiculed by their peers suffer a loss of self-esteem, assess themselves poorly, and abandon the motivation to conform.

Low self-esteem can foste delinquency, which can in turn enhance self-esteem for some delinquents.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Social Bond Theory

Travis Hirschi (1969)

Through successful socialization, a bond forms between individuals and the social group.

When the bond is weakened or broken, deviance and crime may result.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Components of the Social Bond

Attachment

A person's shared interests with others

Commitment

The amount of energy put into activities

Involvement

The amount of time spent in shared activities

Belief

A shared value and moral system

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The General Theory of Crime

Hirschi and Gottfredson (1990)

Self-control

Degree to which a person is vulnerable to the temptations of the moment

Acquired early in life

Low self-control is the premier individual-level cause of crime.

Well-developed social bond will create effective self-control mechanisms.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The General Theory of Crime

Per-Olof H. Wikström's situational action theory (SAT)

Individual's ability to exercise self-control is outcome of the interaction between personal traits and situation.

No fundamental difference between people who follow/break moral rules and those who follow/break criminal law.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The General Theory of Crime

Some researchers argue that the most powerful predictors of crime are found when people with low self-control encounter criminal opportunities.

Context of self-control an important determining factor

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Control-Balance Theory

Charles R. Tittle

Control ratio

The amount of control to which a person is subject versus the amount of control that person exerts over others

Predicts the probability one will engage in deviance and the specific form it will take

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Figure 8–4 Control–Balance Theory Source: Schmalleger, Frank, Criminology. Printed and electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Labeling Theory

Tagging

Process whereby an individual is negatively defined by agencies of justice

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Labeling Theory

After the tagging process is completed, the offender has been defined as bad.

Few legitimate opportunities available

Can only associate with others similarly defined

Association leads to continued crime.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Primary and Secondary Deviance

Edwin M. Lemert

Primary deviance

Initial deviance undertaken to solve an immediate problem or meet the expectations of one's subcultural group

Secondary deviance

Deviant behavior that results from official labeling and from association with others who have been so labeled

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Labeling

Society creates deviance and deviant person by responding to circumscribed behaviors.

Deviance is not a quality of the act but a consequence of the application by others of rules and sanctions.

Moral enterprise

Efforts by an interest group to have its sense of propriety embodied in law

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Contributions of Labeling Theory

Deviance results from social processes involving the imposition of definitions.

Deviants are socially defined.

The reaction of society is the major element in determining the criminality of the behavior and person.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Contributions of Labeling Theory

Negative self-images follow processing by the formal mechanisms of criminal justice rather than preceding delinquency.

Labeling by society and handling by the justice system perpetuate crime rather than reduce it.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Figure 8–5 Becker’s Types of Delinquents Source: Schmalleger, Frank, Criminology. Printed and electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Reintegrative Shaming

John Braithwaite

Emphasizes processes by which a deviant is labeled and sanctioned but then brought back into a community of conformity

Types of shaming

Stigmatic shaming

Reintegrative shaming

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Dramaturgical Perspective

Erving Goffman (1959)

Individuals play a variety of nearly simultaneous social roles that are sustained in interaction with others.

Impression management

The intentional enactment of practiced behavior intended to convey to others one's desirable personal characteristics and social qualities

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Dramaturgical Perspective

Discrediting information

Information that is inconsistent with the managed impressions being communicated in a given situation.

Total institution

An institution from which individuals can rarely come and go and in which communal life is intense and circumscribed

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Policy Implications of Social Process Theories

Emphasize crime prevention programs that enhance self-control and build prosocial bonds

Programs based on social process theories

Juvenile Mentoring Program (JUMP)

Preparing for the Drug Free Years (PDFY)

Montreal Preventive Treatment Program

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Critique of Social Process Theories

Differential association theory

Initial formulation is not applicable at the individual level.

The theory is untestable.

It is not a sufficient explanation for crime.

It fails to account for the emergence of criminal values.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Critique of Social Process Theories

Labeling theory

It does not explain the origin of crime.

Little empirical support for the concept of secondary deviance

Little empirical support for the claim that system labeling is negative

It has little to say about secret deviants.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Critique of Social Process Theories

Dramaturgical perspective

Provides a set of linked concepts rather than a theoretical frame

Does not make suggestions for institutional change

Takes the theater analogy too far

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Social Development Perspective

Focus on process of human development in understanding criminality

Human development occurs on many levels.

Social development theories tend to be integrated theories.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Key Developmental Tasks

Establishing identity

Cultivating symbiotic relationships

Defining physical attractiveness

Investing in a value system

Obtaining an education

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Key Developmental Tasks

Separating from family and achieving independence

Obtaining/maintaining gainful employment

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Life-Course Perspective

Criminal behavior tends to follow a distinct pattern across the life cycle.

Crime uncommon during childhood

Begins in late adolescence, early adulthood

Diminishes/may disappear by age 30–40

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Figure 8–7 Aspects of Criminal Careers Source: Schmalleger, Frank, Criminology. Printed and electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Life Course Perspective

Emphasis on study of criminal careers

Longitudinal sequence of crimes committed by an individual offender

Researchers interested in evaluating:

Prevalence

Frequency

Onset

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Life Course Perspective

Also want to identify different developmental pathways to delinquency

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Life Course Perspective

Examine trajectories and transitions the age-differentiated life span.

Key dynamic concepts

Activation

Aggravation

Desistance

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Figure 8–8 Five Important Life Course Principles Source: Schmalleger, Frank, Criminology. Printed and electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Laub and Sampson's Age-Graded Theory

Delinquency is more likely to occur when bonds to society are weak/broken.

Social ties embedded in adult transitions explain variations in crime not accounted for by childhood deviance

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Laub and Sampson's Age-Graded Theory

Turning points

Crucial life experiences that can change behavior

Key turning points include employment and marriage.

Social capital

The degree of positive relationships that individuals build up over the course of their lives

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Moffitt's Dual Taxonomic Theory

Explains why most antisocial children do not become adult criminals

Life course persisters (LCP)

Display constant patterns of misbehavior throughout life

Adolescence-limited offenders (AL)

Led into offending by structural disadvantages

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Moffitt's Dual Taxonomic Theory

Adolescents more likely to engage in prosocial behaviors, be members of non-deviant peer groups if develop:

Sense of industry and competency

Feeling of connectedness

Belief in ability to control their future

Stable identity

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Farrington's Delinquent Development Theory

Persistence

Continuity in crime

Desistance

The cessation of crime or the termination of a period of involvement in crime

Unaided desistance occurs without formal intervention.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Farrington's Delinquent Development Theory

Desistance

Aided desistance involves justice system.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Farrington's Delinquent Development Theory

Cambridge Study in Delinquent Development

More diversity in ages of desistance than ages of onset

Persistent offenders suffer from a variety of risk factors for delinquency.

Offending peaks at age 17–18, then declines.

By age 35, many subjects had conforming lifestyles.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Farrington's Delinquent Development Theory

Loeber and LeBlanc's components of desistance

Deceleration

Specialization

Deescalation

Reaching a ceiling

Resilience

Psychological ability to successfully cope with severe stress and negative events

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Evolutionary Ecology

Wolfgang's birth cohort study found a small group of chronic juvenile offenders accounted for a disproportionately large share of all juvenile arrests.

Evolutionary ecology builds on social ecology approach.

Emphasizes developmental pathways encountered early in life.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Figure 8–9 The Nucleus of Chronic Offenders Source: Schmalleger, Frank, Criminology. Printed and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Thornberry's Interactional Theory

Integrates social control and social learning elements

Delinquency caused by combination of:

Weakened bond to conventional society

Environment in which delinquency can be learned and rule-violating behavior can be positively rewarded

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Thornberry's Interactional Theory

Delinquency a process that unfolds over the life course

Childhood maltreatment may be an important element of developmental process leading to delinquency.

Extent of maltreatment related to extent of delinquent involvement later in life

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Developmental Pathways

Manifestations of disruptive behaviors are often age dependent.

Program of Research on the Causes and Correlates of Delinquency

Longitudinal study focuses on improving understanding of serious delinquency, violence, and drug use.

Examines how youths develop within the context of family, school, peers, and community

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Developmental Pathways

Positive developmental pathways fostered when adolescents are able to develop:

A sense of industry and competency

A feeling of connectedness to others/society

A belief in their ability to control their future

A stable identity

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Figure 8–12 Three Pathways to Disruptive Behavior and Delinquency Source: Barbara Tatem Kelley et al., Developmental Pathways in Boys’ Disruptive and Delinquent Behavior (Washington, DC: Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, December 1997).

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Pathways to Desistance

Largest longitudinal study of serious adolescent offending ever conducted

Decrease in self-reported offending over time

Longer incarceration ineffective in reducing recidivism

Community-based supervision effective

Substance-abuse treatment has positive effect.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods (PHDCN)

Longitudinal analysis of how individuals, families, institutions, and communities evolve together

Traces how criminal behavior evolves from birth to age 32

Early results have led to targeted interventions intended to lower rates of offending.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Policy Implications of Social Development Theories

OJJDP's Comprehensive Strategy Program

Framework for preventing delinquency, early intervention, responding to serious, violent, and chronic offending

Targeted Outreach program

Diverts at-risk juveniles into activities intended to develop sense of belonging, competence, usefulness, self-control

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Critique of Social Development Theories

Definitional issues and problems

Difficulties in developing risk/needs assessment devices and in using them in both fundamental (pure) and applied research

Assignment 2

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