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Social Structure Theories

Criminology Today

An Integrated Introduction

CHAPTER

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Major Principles of Sociological Theories

Social structure theories examine:

Institutional arrangements within a social structure

Social processes as they affect socialization and have an impact on social life

Macro focus

Stress types of behavior likely to be exhibited by group members

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Figure 7–1 Major Principles of Sociological Theories of Crime Source: Schmalleger, Frank, Criminology. Printed and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Key Sociological Explanations For Crime

Social structure theories

Crime is the result of an individual's location within the structure of society.

Social process and social development theories

Crime is the end product of various social processes.

Conflict theories

Crime is the product of class struggle.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Social Structure Theories

See formal and informal economic and social arrangements of society as the root causes of crime and deviance

See negative aspects of social structure as producers of criminal behavior

Highlight arrangements within society that contribute to low SES of identifiable groups as significant causes of crime

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Social Disorganization Theory

Associated with the ecological school of criminology

W.I. Thomas and Florian Znaniecki

Found crime rates rose among displaced persons

Suggested cause was social disorganization due to immigrants' inability to transplant norms and values from home cultures into the new one

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Chicago School

Social ecology

Links structure, organization of human community to interactions with its localized environment

Social pathology-based disease model

Robert Park and Ernest Burgess

Viewed cities as having five concentric zones, each with unique characteristics and populations

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Figure 7–2 Chicago’s Concentric Zones

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Shaw and McKay

Applied concentric zone model to study of juvenile delinquency

Found offending rates remained constant over time within zones of transition

Cultural transmission

Traditions of delinquency transmitted through successive generations in the same zone

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Chicago School

Research demonstrated tendency for crime to be associated with urban transitional zones.

Key contribution of ecological school

Society has a major influence on human behavior.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Criminology of Place

Environmental criminology

Emphasizes importance of geographic location and architectural features in terms of prevalence of victimization

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Criminology of Place

Sherman

"Hot spots" of crime

Place-based crime prevention

Stark

Theory of deviant neighborhoods

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Criminology of Place

Broken windows theory

Wilson and Kelling

Neighborhood physical deterioration lead to increased crime, delinquency, vandalism

Led to increase in "order maintenance policing" and crackdown on quality-of-life offenses

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Criminology of Place

Defensible space

Oscar Newman

The range of mechanisms that combine to bring an environment under the control of its residents

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Criminology of Place

Criminology of place holds that location can be as predictive of crime as the lifestyles of victimized individuals or social features of victimized households.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Collective Efficacy and Crime

Order maintenance policies may be less effective in reducing crime than empowering residents to exert positive social control in their neighborhoods.

Collective efficacy

Collective ability of residents to produce social action to meet common goals and preserve shared values

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Strain Theory

Strain

The pressure that individuals feel to reach socially determined goals

Anomie (Robert K. Merton)

A disjunction between socially approved means to success and legitimate goals

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Strain Theory

Merton said legitimate goals are desirable to all but acceptable means to achieve them are not equally available.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Strain Theory

Crime becomes an alternative means to success for those lacking the tools necessary to succeed in socially approved ways.

Not everyone accepts legitimacy of socially approved goals.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

TABLE 7-1 GOALS AND MEANS DISJUNCTURE

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Relative Deprivation

Messner and Rosenfeld blame crime on inconsistencies in the American Dream.

Relative deprivation

Economic and social gaps between rich and poor living in close proximity

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Relative Deprivation

Distributive justice

People's perceptions of their rightful place in reward structure of society

Culturally dependent

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Relative Deprivation

Types of relative deprivation

Personal

Individual feels deprived compared with others

Group

Communal sense of injustice shared by members of a group

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

General Strain Theory (GST)

Robert Agnew reformulated strain theory into a comprehensive perspective.

Sees crime as a coping mechanism to help people deal with socioemotional problems generated by negative social relations

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Figure 7–4 The Six Central Propositions of General Strain Theory Source: The Six Central Propositions of General Strain Theory by Robert Agnew from Pressured Into Crime: An Overview of General Strain Theory (New York: Oxford University Press, 2006).

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

General Strain Theory

Expands upon traditional strain theory

Widens focus

Strain may have cumulative effect on delinquency.

More comprehensive account of adaptations to strain

More fully describes wide variety of factors affecting choice of delinquent adaptations to strain

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

General Strain Theory

Agnew says chronic or repetitive strain creates predisposition for delinquency.

May manifest as negative affective states

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

General Strain Theory

Strain theories share two features.

Focus on negative relationships with others

Argue that adolescents pressured into delinquency by negative affective states

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Culture Conflict Theory

Root cause of crime found in clash of values over acceptable or proper behavior

Thorsten Sellin

Conduct norms provide valuative basis for human behavior, are acquired early in life through childhood socialization

Clash of norms between variously socialized groups results in crime

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Culture Conflict Theory

Primary culture conflict

A fundamental clash of cultures

Secondary culture conflict

Smaller cultures within the primary one clash

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Subcultural Theory

Subculture

A collection of values and preferences communicated to participants through a process of socialization

Subcultural theory

Sociological perspective emphasizing the contribution made by variously socialized cultural groups to the phenomenon of crime

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Focal Concerns

Walter Miller identified a lower class subculture with its own values and norms.

Behaviors upholding these norms may violate those of middle-class culture.

Crime is not a consequence of poverty and lack of opportunity but emanates from values characteristic of these subcultures.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Focal Concerns

Trouble

Getting in, staying out, dealing with trouble

Toughness

Concern with masculinity

Smartness

Ability to outsmart or con others and avoid being duped

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Focal Concerns

Excitement

Search for thrills: fighting, gambling, picking up women, etc.

Fate

The concept of luck, being lucky

Autonomy

Taking care of oneself, not getting pushed around

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Delinquency and Drift

Gresham Sykes and David Matza

Members of delinquent subcultures also participate in the larger culture, understand conventional values, know their offending is wrong.

Use neutralizing self-talk to mitigate shame and guilt associated with violating social norms.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Figure 7–5 Techniques of Neutralization Source: Schmalleger, Frank, Criminology. Printed and Electronically reproduced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Delinquency and Drift

Delinquents drift between crime and conventional action, choosing the most expedient.

Use neutralization techniques to overcome guilt, keep from being alienated from larger society

Drug dealers, street robbers, carjackers, hackers all use techniques of neutralization

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Violent Subcultures

Franco Ferracuti and Marvin Wolfgang

Violence is a learned form of adaptation to problematic life circumstances.

Learning to be violent takes place within the context of a subculture emphasizing violence over other forms of adaptation.

Group's value system constitutes a subculture of violence.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Violent Subcultures

Southern subculture of violence

Explains geographic differences in violent crime in U.S.

Some forms of violence more acceptable in southern U.S.

Black subculture of violence

Explains high rate of black under-class homicide in U.S.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Differential Opportunity Theory

Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin

Blended subcultural and strain theory

Two types of socially structured opportunities for success

Legitimate

Access may be denied to members of lower class subcultures

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Differential Opportunity Theory

Two types of socially structured opportunities for success

Illegitimate opportunity structure

Subcultural paths to success not approved of by wider culture

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Differential Opportunity Theory

Delinquent behavior results from:

Ready availability of illegitimate opportunities

Replacement of cultural norms with expedient subcultural rules

Two necessary parts to delinquent act

Behavior violates basic social norms.

When officially known, criminal justice agents agree norms were violated.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Differential Opportunity Theory

Crime and deviance are as normal as any other form of behavior supported by group socialization.

Deviance is an effort to conform to subcultural norms and expectations.

Conventional behavior conforms to norms of wider society.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Types of Delinquent Subcultures

Criminal subcultures

Criminal role models readily available

Conflict subcultures

Status through violence

Retreatist subcultures

Drug use and withdrawal from wider society

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Types of Lower Class Youth

Type I: Desire entry into middle class by improving economic position

Type II: Desire entry to middle class but not improvement in economic position

Type III: Desire wealth without entry to middle class

Type IV: Dropouts who retreat from mainstream via drug and alcohol use

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Reaction Formation

Albert Cohen

Associated with both strain theory and subcultural perspective

Youth held accountable to norms of wider society through "middle class measuring rod" of expectations

Not everyone is prepared to effectively meet such expectations.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Reaction Formation

Juveniles experience status frustration when judged according to middle-class standards they cannot achieve.

Reaction formation

Process by which a person openly rejects that which he wants, or aspires to, but cannot obtain or achieve

Juveniles develop hostility toward middle-class values.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Code of the Street

Elijah Anderson

Contemporary street code stresses a hyperinflated notion of manhood resting on the idea of respect.

Street culture's violent nature means a man cannot back down from threats.

Decent vs. street families

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Gangs Today

Modern gangs are involved in serious and violent crimes.

Gangs can be big business.

Traditional criminal activities

Drug dealing

Distinctions between gangs and violence

Co-offending especially prevalent in the lives of gang members

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Policy Implications of Social Structure Theories

Chicago Area Project (Clifford Shaw)

Tried to reduce social disorganization in slum neighborhoods by creating community committees

Mobilization for Youth

Based on differential opportunity theory

Provided new opportunities, tried to change fundamental arrangements of society, address root causes of crime

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Policy Implications of Social Structure Theories

War on Poverty

Kennedy and Johnson Administrations

Programs designed to reduce crime rates by redistributing wealth in American society

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Critique of Social Structure Theories

Some argue the inverse of the "root causes" argument.

Suggest poverty and social injustices are produced by crime

If so, addressing poverty and social inequity as the root causes of crime is and ineffective crime prevention strategy.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Critique of Ecological Theories

May give too much credence to the notion that spatial location determines crime

Seems unable to differentiate between social disorganization and the things it is said to cause

Many crimes occur outside of socially disorganized areas.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Critique of Strain Theories

Original formulation less applicable to modern society

Delinquents do not report being more distressed than other youth.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Critique of Subcultural Theories

Seen as lacking in explanatory power

Seen as tautological (circular)

Has been criticized or being racist

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Other Critiques of Social Structure Theories

Link low SES to high delinquency

Not supported by empirical studies

Overemphasis on environments creates bias against looking elsewhere for possible causes.

Cannot predict which individuals, or which proportion of given population, will turn to crime

Assignment 2

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