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Where Do Theories Come From?

Criminology Today

An Integrated Introduction

CHAPTER

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Evidence-Based Criminology

Emphasis on theories, policies, practices that are evidence-based

Founded upon the experimental method

Emphasizes randomized controlled experiments

"Evidence" refers to scientific findings.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Evolving Science of Criminology

John Laub's eras of criminological thought

Golden Age of Research (1900–1930)

Golden Age of Theory (1930–1960)

Testing of dominant theories (1960–2000)

Current era/21st century criminology contains "all possible offspring" of what came before.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Evolving Science of Criminology

Modern criminology more scientific than "armchair criminology" of the past

Scientific criminology involves:

Systematic collection of related facts

Emphasis on the scientific method

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Evolving Science of Criminology

Scientific criminology involves:

General laws, field for experimentation or observation, control of academic discourse

Acceptance into the scientific tradition

Emphasis on a worthwhile subject

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Theory Building

Goal of criminological research

Construct theories or models that improve our understanding of criminal behavior and help us create effective strategies to deal with the crime problem

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Theory Building

Theory

A series of interrelated propositions that attempt to describe, explain, predict, and ultimately control some class of events

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Figure 2-1 The Theory Building Process Source: Pearson Education, Inc.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Uses of Theory

Provide patterns for interpreting data

Link studies together

Supply frameworks within which concepts and variables have special significance

Allow us to interpret the larger meaning of findings

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Role of Research and Experimentation

Research

The use of standardized, systematic procedures in the search for knowledge

Types of research

Applied vs. pure

Primary vs. secondary

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Stages of Scientific Research

Problem identification

Development of a research design

Choice of data collection techniques

Review of findings

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Problem Identification

First step in any research

Choosing the problem/issue to be studied

Most research in criminology explores issues of causality.

Frequently involves testing hypotheses

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Problem Identification

Hypothesis

A tentative explanation for an observation, phenomenon, or scientific problem that can be tested by further investigation

Something that is taken to be true for the purpose of argument or investigation; an assumption

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Problem Identification

Variable

A concept that can undergo measurable changes

Operationalization

Turning a simple hypothesis into one that is testable

Making concepts in hypothesis measurable turns them into variables.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Development of a Research Design

Research design

The logic and structure inherent in any particular approach to data gathering

One-group pretest-posttest

O1 × O2

Simple research design

Does not eliminate confounding effects or competing hypotheses

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Validity in Research Designs

Internal validity

The certainty that experimental interventions did indeed cause the changes observed in the study group

External validity

The ability to generalize research findings to other settings

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Figure 2-2 Threats to the Internal Validity of a Research Design Source: Pearson Education, Inc.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Figure 2-3 Threats to the External Validity of a Research Design Source: Pearson Education, Inc.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Research Designs

Controlled experiments

Attempt to hold conditions other than the experimental intervention constant

Quasi-experimental designs

Give the researcher control over the "when and to whom" of measurement (but not exposure to intervention)

Less powerful than controlled experiments

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Experimental Design

Pretest-posttest control group design

Experimental group: O1 × O2

Control group: O3 × O4

Control group is not exposed to experimental intervention.

Using a control group increases power of design.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Experimental Design

Randomization is critical to success of experimental design.

Process by which subjects are assigned to study groups without biases or differences resulting from selection

No self-selection allowed, no personal judgment used in subject assignment

Controls threats to internal validity

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Choice of Data-Collection Techniques

Data gathering strategies provide approaches to the accumulation of information needed for analysis.

Strategy must produce information in usable form.

Kind of information needed depends on questions to be answered.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Main Types of Data-Gathering Strategies

Surveys

Case studies

Participant observation

Self-reporting

Secondary analysis

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Surveys

Use questionnaires or surveys to gather "survey data"

May interview respondents in person, over the telephone, by e-mail, by fax, or by mail

National Crime Victimization Survey

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Case Studies

In-depth investigations into individual cases

Life history

Case study focusing on one individual (a single subject)

Suffer from high levels of subjectivity but provide opportunity to examine individual cases in depth

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Participant Observations

Involves various strategies in which the researcher observes a group by participating, to varying degrees, in the activities of the group

Researchers may operate undercover or make their purpose and identity known from the start.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Participant Observations

Main types

Participant as observer

Observer as complete participant

Important for observer to avoid influencing group, identifying too closely with group, or aversion to group

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Self-Reporting

Subjects are asked to report rates of certain behaviors, such as crime.

May provide information when official records are lacking

May be a form of survey research

Some techniques, such as introspection and personal reflection, are purely subjective.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Secondary Analysis

New analysis or evaluation of existing data that was gathered by other researchers

Analysis of information originally collected for a different purpose

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Problems in Data Collection

Scientific observation must meet two criteria.

Intersubjectivity: Independent observers report seeing the same thing under the same circumstances

Replicability: When the same conditions exist, the same results can be expected to follow

Observations meeting these criteria may still lead to unwarranted conclusions.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Review of Findings

Most data subjected to some form of statistical analysis

Descriptive statistics: describe, summarize, highlight relationships within data

Inferential statistics: attempt to generalize findings by specifying how likely they are to be true for other populations or locations

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Review of Findings

Measures of central tendency

Mode, median, mean

Standard deviation

Measure of dispersion

Correlation

Interdependence between variables

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Review of Findings

Tests of significance

Provide researchers with confidence that results are true, not result of sampling error

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Quantitative versus Qualitative Methods

Quantitative methods

Techniques that produce measurable results that can be analyzed statistically

"Mystique of quantity"

Qualitative methods

Techniques that produce subjective results, or results that are difficult to quantify

Verstehen

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Values and Ethics in the Conduct of Research

Values affect all stages of the research process.

Research is never free from preconceptions and biases.

Control their effect by being aware of them at the onset of the research

Biases may threaten validity of research results.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Values and Ethics in the Conduct of Research

Ethical issues do not affect validity but may impact the lives of researchers and subjects.

Protection of human subjects

Privacy

Need for disclosure of research methods

Data confidentiality

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Values and Ethics in the Conduct of Research

Informed consent

Strategy used to overcome ethical issues inherent in criminological research

Inform subjects as to nature of research, their anticipated role, the uses made of the data

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Values and Ethics in the Conduct of Research

Institutional review boards

Established by universities, research organizations, government agencies

Examine research proposals to determine whether expectations of ethical conduct have been met before the proposals are submitted to funding organizations

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Values and Ethics in the Conduct of Research

Participant observation may entail difficult ethical issue.

Should researchers violate the law if research participation appears to require it?

Researcher's primary role is that of a scientist.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Social Policy and Criminological Research

Ideally, research should significantly impact public crime control policy.

Realistically

Public officials may be ignorant of current research.

Public officials may ignore research findings, create politically expedient policies.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Writing the Research Report

Title page

Acknowledgements

Table of contents

Preface

Abstract

Introduction

Review of existing literature

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Writing the Research Report

Description of existing situation

Statement of hypothesis

Description of research plan

Disclaimers/limitations

Findings/results

Analysis/discussion

Summary/conclusions

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Writing the Research Report

Endnotes/footnotes

Appendices

List of references

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Writing for Publication

Refereed journals

Primary outlet for research results

Journals that use peer reviewers to gauge the quality of manuscripts submitted to them

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Writing for Publication

Refereed journals

Believed to result in publication of research making a worthwhile contribution and rejection of lesser quality research

Manuscript submission requirements vary by journal.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger