Assignment 2

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Crimes Against Persons

Criminology Today

An Integrated Introduction

CHAPTER

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Murder

Homicide

Willful killing of one human being by another

Murder

Criminal homicide

The causing of the death of another person without legal justification or excuse

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Types of Murder

First degree

Planned, malice aforethought

Second degree

Crime of passion

Third degree

Negligent homicide

Felony murder

Killing during another crime

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Subculture of Violence Thesis

Wolfgang and Ferracuti's subculture of violence thesis

Certain groups share norms/values in lifestyles of violence.

Main theoretical perspective used to explain similarities between homicide victims and offenders

continued on next slide

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Subculture of Violence Thesis

The racial composition of an area alone does not have a significant effect on homicide rates.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Victim-Offender Relationship

Parker and Smith's typology

Primary homicides

Most frequent, prior victim/offender relationship

Expressive crimes

Nonprimary homicides

No prior victim/offender relationship

Instrumental crimes

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Victim-Offender Relationship

Williams and Flemming

Factors predicting homicide vary by homicide type.

Poverty better predictor of family homicide

Population size better predictor of stranger homicide

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Victim-Offender Relationship

Williams and Flemming

Victim/offender relationship and homicide context explain patterns of homicide.

Exposure-reduction theory of intimate-partner homicide

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Sibling Offenses

Not all homicide offenders intend to kill their victims.

Instrumental homicide may begin as a robbery motivated by instrumental ends.

Expressive homicide may be preceded by an argument.

Sibling offense

Incident that initiates the homicide

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Weapon Use

Instrumentality

The type of weapon used in an encounter can affect whether the encounter becomes lethal.

Availability

Issues surrounding how access to guns may increase their presence in all types of interactions, including criminal ones.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Alcohol and Drug Use

Goldstein

Association of alcohol/drugs with violent crimes takes 1 of 3 forms.

Psychopharmacological use

Economic compulsion

Systemic violence

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Alcohol and Drug Use

Parker

Selective disinhibition

Loss of self-control due to social setting and/or drugs or alcohol

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Serial Killers

Criminal homicide involving the killing of several victims in three or more events

Most serial killers are not legally insane or medically psychotic, although many are diagnosed as sociopaths.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Typologies of Serial Killers

Four-part typology

Visionary serial killers

Comfort serial killers

Hedonistic serial killers

Power seekers

Fox and Levin typology

Thrill-motivated

Sexual sadists

Dominance killers

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Typologies of Serial Killers

Fox and Levin typology

Mission-oriented

Reformists

Visionaries

Expedience-driven

Profit-driven

Protection-oriented

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Female Serial Killers

Typically target people known to them

Different from male serial killers, who tend to target strangers

Disciple killer

Murders as the result of the influence of a charismatic personality

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Female Serial Killers

Generally characterized by geographic stability

Male serial killers often commit crimes some distance from their homes.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Female Serial Killers

Kelleher and Kelleher's typology of female serialists

Black widow

Angel of death

Tend to be more systematic then men

Typical career of female serial killer is longer than that of male counterparts.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Apprehending Serial Killers

FBI's Violent Criminal Apprehension Program (VICAP)

Profiling

Organized nonsocial killers

Disorganized asocial killers

Geomapping

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Mass Murder

Killing more than three people at the same time

Levin and Fox's typology differentiates crime by motive.

Revenge

Love

Profit

Terror

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Mass Murder

Contributing factors that may lead to mass murder

Predisposers

Precipitants

Facilitators

Majority of mass killers target specially chosen victims.

Easier to apprehend than serial killers

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Rape

FBI adopted new gender-neutral definition of rape in 2012.

Old definition biased

Did not allow for rape of male victims

Did not count nonvaginal sexual intercourse

Did not count rapes that omitted direct physical force

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Rape

New gender-neutral definition

The penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ of another person, without the consent of the victim

Police reports rarely reveal the true incidence of rape.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Feminist Perspectives

Multiple perspectives

Some common elements

View gender as a social (not biological) construct

Patriarchal structures within society that contribute to the privileged status of men are inseparable from rape

Rape seen as act of power/domination

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Feminist Perspectives

Rape culture

Views male aggression as normal, even in sexual relations

Women blamed for their own rapes

Contribution of pornography

Objectification of women

Feminist perspectives have been criticized for their often one-dimensional view of masculinity.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Psychopathological Perspective

Based on two assumptions

Rape is the result of idiosyncratic mental disease.

Rape often includes uncontrollable sexual impulses.

Groth suggests that rape is connected to issues like power and anger.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Integrated Theory of Rape

Model posits that support for legitimate violence, higher levels of gender inequality, and social disorganization combine to produce higher rape rates at the state level.

Researchers have found support for direct effect of gender inequality on rape rates.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Evolutionary/Biological Perspectives

Focuses on motives and ends conducive to rape

Different traits relating to mating that developed in males and females may have evolved through sexual selection

Criticized for justifying rape as natural

Argues that feminist position of rape ignores existence of a biologically based sexual motivation

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Typologies of Rapists

Hazelwood and Burgess' typology is based on offender motivation.

Power-assertive

Power-reassurance

Anger-retaliatory

Anger-excitation

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Typologies of Rapists

Stevens' typology based on motivations

Role of lust a primary motive for a large proportion of rapists

Scully's typology based on patterns of rationalizations used by offenders

Admitters

Deniers

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Acquaintance Rape

Majority of rapes occur when victim and offender have some prior relationship.

Date rape

Acquaintance rape among adults often occurs within the context of a dating relationship.

Issue of concern on college campuses

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Spousal Rape

Spousal rape now illegal in all states

Russell's typology

Husbands who prefer raping their wives to having consensual sex with them

Husbands who enjoy both rape and consensual sex with their wives

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Spousal Rape

Russell's typology

Husbands who prefer consensual sex but are willing to rape their wives

Husbands who might like to rape their wives but do not act on those desires

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Rape in Prison

2003 Prison Rape Elimination Act mandates the collection of statistics on prison rape.

Victims frequently reluctant to report incidents to correctional authorities

Sexual assaults in prison likely to have long-term psychological effects on victims.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Sexual Victimization of Men

Issue largely ignored until recently

Victims often significantly stigmatized

Data sources ignore settings where men are likely to be victimized.

Sexual victimization of men common

Public still sees sexual victimization as primarily a women's issue.

continued on next slide

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Sexual Victimization of Men

Traditional notions contribute to dismissive attitudes towards male victims.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Child Sexual Abuse

Includes a variety of criminal and civil offenses in which an adult:

Engages in sexual activity with a minor

Exploits a minor for purposes of sexual gratification, or

Exploits a minor sexually for purposes of profit

continued on next slide

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Child Sexual Abuse

Greatly despised but little understood

Self-reports reveal far more abuse than officially reported.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Types of Child Sex Abusers

Almost all pedophiles are male, with few other similarities.

Groth's two-part typology

Regressed offenders

Fixated offenders

Commercial sexual exploitation of children

Adult victimizes child sexually for profit.

Includes child pornography

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Robbery

Combines elements of violence and property crime

Personal robberies

Robberies and muggings occurring in residences

Institutional robberies

Robberies in commercial settings (banks, gas stations, etc.)

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Lethal Potential of Robbery

Robbery carries threat of lethal injury to the victim

Robbery is the most likely felony to result in a homicide.

Most frequently used weapon is a firearm, primarily a handgun.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Criminal Careers of Robbers

Most robbers are generalists with lengthy but varied careers.

Few inmates specialize exclusively in robbery.

Diversity of offense type appears to be the norm for most offenders.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Robbery and Public Transportation

Crime prevention strategies can be very effective in public transport settings.

Robbery on mass transit is fairly rare.

Among transit workers, taxi drivers are at greatest risk of robbery.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Motivation of Robbers

Most robberies involve little planning.

Alternatives to robbery include:

Legal work, borrowing, other crimes

Most not viable options for convicted robbers

continued on next slide

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Motivation of Robbers

Motivations for robbery include financial gain, desire to fight, desire to set right a perceived injustice, desire to enhance street credibility, or "just for kicks."

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Drug Robberies

Majority of offenders specializing in street robberies have targeted minor drug dealers.

Acquire both money and drugs

Drug dealers were unlikely to report the victimization to the police.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Drug Robberies

Targeting drug dealers risky because of possibility of violent retaliation.

Strategies used to minimize risk involved in targeting drug dealers

Intimidation

Anonymity maintenance

Hypervigilance

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Gendered Nature of Robbery

Other than rape, robbery is the most gender-differentiated crime in the US.

Men/women motivated by money, differ in how they carry out street robberies

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Gendered Nature of Robbery

Female robbers' common patterns

Rob other women using physical confrontation

Use sexuality to attract male victims

Accomplice to male robbers targeting men

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Aggravated Assault

The unlawful attack by one person upon another wherein the offender uses a weapon or displays it in a threatening manner, or the victim suffers obvious or severe bodily injury

Typical offender profile mirrors that of homicide offenders.

Most aggravated assaults are spontaneous.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Stranger Assault

Possibility of stranger violence creates much fear and concern

Probability of serious victimization by strangers very low

Likelihood varies by demographic characteristics.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Assault within Families

Majority of assaults involve victims and offenders known to each other, often in familial or intimate relationships.

Family privacy

Family violence is difficult to research because the family as a social institution is private.

Discussion of violence among family members violates this privacy.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Assault within Families

Early research found women much more likely than men to be victims of domestic violence

NIBRS data suggest that slightly over half of all violent crimes involved victims and offenders who were related.

Most were assaults

continued on next slide

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Assault within Families

Women more likely to be victims of assaults within family than in general population.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Intimate-Partner Assault

Assaultive behavior between individuals involved in an intimate relationship

Vast majority of victims are women.

Separation assault

A particularly violent response by the male partner that occurs after a woman leaves a violent relationship

Cycle of violence

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Workplace Violence

Includes murder, rape, robbery, and assault committed against persons at work or on duty

Significant problem in U.S. today

Police experience highest rates of workplace violence, college/university professors among those least likely to be victimized.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Types of Workplace Violence

Violence by criminals with no other connection to the workplace

Violence directed at employees by those for whom organization provides services

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Types of Workplace Violence

Violence against coworkers, supervisors, or managers by a present or former employee

Violence by someone who does not work there but who has a personal relationship with an employee

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Hate Crimes

Crimes motivated by hatred, bias, or prejudice based on the actual/perceived race, color, religion, national origin, ethnicity, gender, or sexual orientation of another individual or group

1990 Hate Crime Statistics Act

Includes violent and property crimes

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Role of Hate Groups

Hate groups

KKK, Aryan Nations, National Alliance, etc.

Most hate crimes not committed by hate groups

Majority of hate crimes are committed by teens, primarily white males, acting alone or in groups.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Stalking

Course of conduct directed at a specific person that involves repeated visual or physical proximity, nonconsensual communication, and/or verbal, written or implied threats, or a combination thereof, that would cause a reasonable person fear

Antistalking laws consider the totality of the circumstances.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Types of Stalkers

Rejected stalkers

Intimacy-seeking stalkers

Incompetent suitors

Resentful vendetta-motivated stalkers

Predatory stalkers

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Victim-Offender Relationships in Stalking

Majority of victims are women, majority of stalkers are men.

Most victims between ages of 18–39

Majority of victims know their stalkers.

Women more likely to be stalked by intimate partner

Men more likely to be stalked by stranger or acquaintance

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Stalking in Intimate-Partner Relationships

Can occur before and/or after relationship ends

Other forms of violence often accompany stalking

Men who stalked their former wives more likely than non-stalkers to engage in emotionally abuse and controlling behavior towards wife

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Consequences of Stalking

Consequences can negatively affect victims' lives.

Increased concern about personal safety

Need for counseling

Time lost from work

Need for extra self-protective measures

Women more likely to report stalking to police than men

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Cyberstalking

The use of electronic communications (e-mail, Internet) to harass individuals

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Cyberstalking

Recommendations to help control cyberstalking include:

Review of state stalking laws to ensure they include provisions for cyberstalking

Amendments to federal laws

Training for law enforcement

Web site with cyberstalking information

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Assignment 2

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