Assignment 2

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Criminal Victimization

Criminology Today

An Integrated Introduction

CHAPTER

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Hidden Victims

Dark figure of crime

Unreported crimes not reflected in official statistics

Some information available from self-report surveys

Undiscovered crimes

Crimes not known to victims

Many committed using technology

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Victimization by the Numbers

Sources of official U.S. crime statistics

National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)

Collected by Bureau of Justice Statistics

UCR/NIBRS program

Run by the FBI

Uniform Crime Reports (UCR)

National Criminal Incident-Based Reporting System (NIBRS)

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The NCVS

Main source of information on criminal victimization

Self-report data from victims on non-fatal personal crimes and household property crimes

Includes data on reported and unreported crimes

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The NCVS

Data obtained from a nationally representative sample of ~169,000 persons aged 12+ living in US households

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Critique of the NCVS

Possible overreporting

Definitions of crimes do not correspond to federal or state statutes.

Changes to NCVS categories make it difficult to compare NCVS findings over time.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Uniform Crime Reporting Program

Run by the FBI since 1929

Includes information on reported crimes

Collects information on 8 serious crimes and arrest data on additional crimes

Data comes from law enforcement agencies.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Advantages of NIBRS

Provides broad range of crime data

Victimization data categorized by age and type of crime

Data on victim-offender relationships

Information on timing of victimizations

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Advantages of NIBRS

Data on victimizations involving weapons

Data on co-occurring victimization in a given offense

Statistics on case clearances

A more complete picture of crime and victimization

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

UCR Critique

UCR/NIBRS program only includes crimes that are reported by the police.

Rape is the most underreported crime.

Many other crimes are underreported as well, including larceny.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Comparing the UCR and the NCVS

Similarities

Measure same subset of serious crimes

Similar definitions of most crimes

Differences

Program objectives differ

Measure non-identical sets of crimes

UCR provides property crime counts per capita; NCVS counts crimes per household.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Changing Offense Patterns

Sharp decline in crime in early 1940s

Dramatic increase in crime from 1960s to 1990s

Decrease in crime since mid-1990s

Some evidence we may be on the cusp of a new cycle of increased criminal activity

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Demographic Correlates of Crime

Demographic characteristics are significantly correlated with victimization risk.

"Typical" violent crime victim: socioeconomically disadvantaged young black male living in inner city region of large metropolitan area

Victimization risk varies by type of crime.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Revictimization and Polyvictimization

Polyvictimization

Multiple instances of varied victimizations

Polyvictimization has a more negative impact than being the victim of one type of chronic victimization.

Revictimization

Continued victimization by the same offender committing the same crime

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Developmental Victimization Survey (DVS)

National phone survey of 2,030 children and youth aged 10–17 in 2002-2003

Information on younger children (age 2–9) obtained from parents/caregivers

Two follow-up surveys also conducted

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Developmental Victimization Survey (DVS)

Conceptual model showing 4 pathways leading to child polyvictimization

Living in a dangerous family

Having a family with problems (money, employment, substance abuse, etc.)

Living in or moving into a dangerous community

Being a child with preexisting emotional problems that increase risky behavior

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Psychological Impact of Victimization

Victims often experience socio-emotional impacts of crime.

Victims of serious violence especially vulnerable

Symptoms of stress can be physical as well as emotional.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Physical Impact of Victimization

Crime may result in direct physical injury as well as other post-crime physical reactions.

Physical injuries range from minor to deadly.

Injuries can be life-threatening, result in long-term disability or permanent disfigurement.

Not all physical injuries obvious

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Economic Loss

Includes immediate losses from victimization as well as other costs

Medical/mental health costs

Repairs to property/possessions

Increased insurance premiums

Security system installation

Participation in justice system can have substantial personal costs as well.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Economic Loss

Costs due to relocating a residence

Economic productivity at work may suffer.

Family of murder victim having to bear funeral and burial expenses

Financial burdens of victimization especially difficult for economically marginalized, young, disabled

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Secondary Victimization

Social injuries resulting from response of social institutions and individuals to the victim

Occurs as result of initial/primary victimization

May involve justice system officials, members of the public, media

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Secondary Victimization

Not the same as "secondary victim"

Person who suffers unintended consequences when others are victimized

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Victimization as a Risk Factor for Crime

Research shows women's victimization can significantly contribute to future criminal involvement.

Victimization can lead to criminality through direct and indirect ways.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Victimology

A subfield of criminology

The scientific study of all aspects of criminal victimization

Includes the process of victimization, the criminal, the victim, the justice system, society

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Victimology

Victimologists study vulnerable groups to understand the victimization process.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Blaming the Victim

Victimogenesis

The origin/cause of victimization

Early victimologists classified the degree to which victims contributed to their own victimization.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Victim Precipitation

Contribution made by the victim to the criminal event

Main types

Passive

Victim unknowingly encourages the offender.

Active

Victim literally provokes the victimization.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Victim Precipitation

Ways in which victims contribute to their own victimization

Victim facilitation

Fail to take simple precautions against victimization

Victim provocation

Victim as initial aggressor

Victim initiation

Victim attracts offender's attention.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Victim Precipitation Research

Marvin Wolfgang

Found 26% of homicides result of active victim precipitation

Beniamin Mendelsohn

Six-part typology based on degree of victim culpability

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Victim Precipitation Research

Hans von Hentig

13-category taxonomy identifying psychological, social, biological factors correlated with victimization risk

Stephen Schafer

"Functional responsibility"

7-category typology based on degree of provocation

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Victim Precipitation Research

Menachim Amir

19% of forcible rapes involving female victims were victim precipitated

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Victimization and Lifestyle

Victimology theories of 1970s shifted focus to people's choices that affect availability to offenders, make them easier targets.

Key approaches

Lifestyle theory

Routine activities approach

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Lifestyle Theory

Lifestyle

Style of life, the way a person lives

Some lifestyles favor victimization because they offer more opportunities

Demographic variables determine victimization risk through their effect on lifestyle.

Some populations are at heightened risk due to their status (e.g., elderly).

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Routine Activities Theory

Examines interaction of motivated offenders, suitable targets, and capable guardians

Individual's everyday actions contribute to likelihood of victimization.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Situational Model

Situational insights combine to elicit a criminal response from individual actors.

Crime may result from temptation, bad company, idleness, provocation.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

The Situational Model

Model defines what constitutes an opportunity for crime.

Can prevent crime by changing potential victim's routines or hardening targets

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Deviant Places Theory

Spatially oriented theory

Victimization most frequent in socially disorganized high-crime areas

People become victims as a result of exposure to these areas.

Focus is on geographically-determined risk of coming into contact with an offender, regardless of lifestyle, behavior, personal characteristics

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Deviant Places Theory

Certain neighborhood conditions produce stigmatized neighborhoods with bad reputations.

Stigmatized neighborhoods increase risk of victimization for those living or visiting but most residents do not become criminal.

continued on next slide

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Deviant Places Theory

Theory depends on ecological features of location, not on characteristics of residents.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

A History of the Victim

Victims rarely had a role in the justice system other than testifying at trial.

Needs/problems largely ignored

1982 President's Task Force on Victims of Crime gave focus to victims' rights movement

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

A History of the Victim

Movement to add victims' rights amendments to constitutions

No federal constitutional amendment but 30+ states have amendments

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Victims' Rights Legislation

1982 Victim and Witness Protection Act

Judges must consider victim impact statements at federal sentencing hearings.

1984 Victims of Crime Act (VOCA)

Established federal Crime Victims Fund to help states develop victims' assistance and compensation programs

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Victims' Rights Legislation

1994 Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act

Federal right of allocution

Federal ex offenders and child molesters must pay restitution.

Rape shield law protections extended to civil and criminal cases

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Victims' Rights Legislation

1994 Violence against Women Act

Addressed concerns about violence against women (sexual violence, domestic abuse)

2001 USA PATRIOT Act amended VOCA to make victims of terrorism eligible for victims' compensation.

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Victims' Rights Legislation

2004 Crime Victims' Rights Act

Established statutory rights for victims of federal crimes

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Restorative Justice (RJ)

Philosophical basis of victims' movement

Emphasizes offender accountability and victim reparation

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Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Restorative Justice (RJ)

Community safety dimension recognizes that the justice system has responsibility to protect public.

Accountability element defines criminal conduct in terms of offender obligation.

Criminology Today: An Integrated Introduction, 8e

Frank Schmalleger

Victim Restitution

Sentencing options seeking to restore victim frequently focus on restitution payments by offenders

All states have passed laws providing for monetary payments to victims.

Programs generally have eligibility requirements and limit maximum amount of compensation that can be received.

Assignment 2

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