Workplace Diversity: Nestle India

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Strategic Business Project Workbook

Stuart Paul

Release 1.1 2014

www.uws.ac.uk

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Published by the University of the West of Scotland.

© 2014 University of the West of Scotland

The right of Stuart Paul to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with Sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of research or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, this publication may only be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any form or by any means, with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms and licenses issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency.

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Contents

1 An Introduction to Business Research and Your MBA Project Report 1 2 Literature Review 13 3 Quantitative Research Methods 20 4 Qualitative Research Methods 42 5 Writing Up Your MBA Project Report 55

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1

An Introduction to Business Research and Your MBA Project Report

Learning outcomes

After completing the study of this topic you should be able to:

• know the main approaches to business research;

• be equipped to begin planning your MBA project.

The prescribed reading for this topic is from the core text: Sekaran and Bougie (2010) Research Methods for Business, Chapters 1 and 3.

Introduction

This short topic about business research and the MBA project will set out the following key areas:

• What is business research?

• Approaches to business research

• Planning Your MBA research project.

1.1 What is business research?

The core text for the module describes business research as a ‘systematic and organized effort to investigate a specific problem in the work setting, which needs a solution’. Most business degrees at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels require students to undertake some form of research. As such it can be one of the most interesting parts of any degree course. It offers you a degree of control and autonomy over what you learn and how you do it. Of course, a supervisor will be appointed to help you as you go through the MBA project, but it is very much down to you to manage your time and effort to ensure a successful completion of your MBA. Collis & Hussey (2009) suggest that the purpose of research can be:

• Review or synthesize existing knowledge

• Investigate existing situations or problems

• Provide solutions to problems

• Explore and analyse more general issues

• Construct or create new procedures or systems

• Explain new phenomenon

• Generate new knowledge

• Or a combination of any of the above!

Therefore, you are about to embark on a journey on which you will not only learn about research and how to do it, but you will also (with a bit of luck!) contribute to knowledge and understanding in an area of your choosing.

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1.2 Approaches to business research

Business research provides the necessary information that guides managers in mak- ing informed decisions to successfully deal with problems, determine strategies and arrive at solutions. This information (data) can either be quantitative or qualitative.

• Quantitative data are data in the form of numbers and are generally gathered through structured questions, often utilising structured questionnaires. Quant- itative research concentrates on measuring the scale, range and the frequency of phenomena. Data from quantitative research are usually highly detailed and structured and are presented statistically.

• Qualitative data are data in the form of words as generated from broad answers to questions in interviews or from responses to open-ended questions in a questionnaire. Qualitative research is more subjective in nature and usually involves investigating less tangible aspects of a research subject, for example, values and perceptions.

These are two descriptions applied to types of research with which you should become familiar. Research is often described as:

• basic or applied, and as either

• inductive or deductive.

1.2.1 Basic or applied research

The focus of basic research is to improve knowledge generally whereas applied research addresses a particular situation or problem. For example, a product may not be selling well and the organisation wishes to address this issue− this as applied research. In your MBA project, you are required to engage in applied research by addressing a specific business or management issue. Ideally, the research which you undertake for your MBA project should be applied in that it should have practical value. To this extent it can be said to be similar to a management consultancy report.

1.2.2 Inductive or deductive research

In an inductive approach to research, a researcher begins by collecting data that are relevant to his or her topic of interest. Once substantial amounts of data have been collected, the researcher will then look for patterns in the data, working to develop an explanation or theory for those patterns. In other words, this research approach moves from data to explanation (and sometimes theory), or from the specific to the general. Most qualitative based research studies are inductive.

Researchers adopting a deductive approach take the steps described earlier for inductive research and reverse their order. They start with a theory that they find compelling and then test its implications with data. That is, they move from a more general level to a more specific one. A deductive approach to research is the one that people typically associate with scientific investigation. The researcher studies what others have done, reads existing theories of whatever phenomenon he or she is studying, and then tests hypotheses that emerge from those theories. Most quantitative research studies are deductive in approach.

Reflective exercise 1.1

Every research approach has its advantages (i.e. its positive features) and dis- advantages (i.e. its points of criticism). Take a few minutes to note down key points in answer to the following two questions.

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What are the advantages of applying an inductive/qualitative approach utilising interviews to a research project?

What are the advantages of applying a deductive/quantitative approach util- ising a structured questionnaire to a research project?

Once you have answered these two questions, consider the points below. Do your answers match these?

Inductive/qualitative approach

Advantages

• You can use a relatively small sample for your research.

• Data can be gathered which is ‘rich’ in personal comment and personal insights.

• The ‘why’ is automatically addressed in the data.

• With interviews, respondents are free to answer any way they would like− they aren’t constrained to a pre-determined set of possible responses as you might see on a survey.

Disadvantages

• The findings are subjective and it can be difficult to generalise from the research.

• Your research would be very hard to reproduce if another researcher wanted to reproduce your research and test your findings.

• A qualitative approach is often time consuming − interviewing people takes time.

• And, because time is very often linked with cost, qualitative approaches can be expensive.

Deductive/quantitative approach

Advantages

• It can be an extremely efficient approach for gathering data, especially for large groups of people.

• Quantitative methods are easier to replicate and this can make it easier for other researchers to test your findings.

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Disadvantages

• Not a particular good approach to take if you are trying to explain why things happen.

• Assumes that researchers can be objective, but researchers may allow their own values and interests to influence the research.

• You need to use a large sample to be able to make generalisations from the results.

For your MBA project, the decision to adopt a qualitative/inductive approach or a quantitative/deductive approach will be determined by:

• The issue you wish to research; and by

• Your own skills and preferences.

1.3 Planning your MBA project research

Experience has shown that the main stages of an MBA project research can be sub- divided into 8 main stages. However, in practice these stages are likely to overlap and the transition between one stage and another is not always clear-cut. In practice, it is often necessary to move back and forth between stages to, for example, read additional material, collect additional data, or adjust a timescale. It is rare for an MBA project to proceed smoothly and in a ‘straight line’. Indeed, it is arguable that one of the distinguishing features of the successful MBA researcher is her/his ability to capitalise on opportunities, manage setbacks and still deliver a quality project on- time. Notwithstanding, timeous delivery of an MBA project will be greatly enhanced if a student carefully works out a timetable for each stage of the research. The 8 main stages of an MBA project are shown below. Think about what you want to achieve in your MBA project. Can you put in tentative dates to each of the stages?

Stage 1. Establish a general field of interest− discuss with supervisor/tutor

Stage completed by:

Stage 2. Undertake background reading on your research area and consider appro- priate research approach.

Stage completed by:

Stage 3. Refine your ideas to develop a research proposal and give it a title. Decide on the most appropriate methods for gathering data, e.g. questionnaire, interviews. Continue reading and writing for your literature review and about main research approaches.

Stage completed by:

Stage 4. Prepare information gathering ‘tools’, e.g. questionnaires, interview guide. The questions you ask in a questionnaire or at interview will be determined in large measure by key points to emerge from your literature review. Continue reading and writing for your literature review.

Stage completed by:

Stage 5. Collect data for your research project. Continue reading for your literature review. Finish draft of your methodology chapter.

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Stage completed by:

Stage 6. Analyse your research data. Draft results chapter. Your literature review should be 90% written by this stage.

Stage completed by:

Stage 7. Draft the analysis and conclusions chapter of you project report.

Stage completed by:

Stage 8. Finish writing your project and submit.

Reflective exercise 1.2

You can make a start on Stage 1 of your MBA project now! Consider the questions below and start writing.

What research interests do you have?

What is your area of interest?

For example, is it marketing, human resources, finance, operations, etc? Write down your thoughts. At this stage, keep your ideas broad and general. Save these to file.

Reflective exercise 1.3

Following on from reflective exercise 1.2, why are you interested in this area? Set out your reasons.

Then, think about how you would research this area. Would you adopt a quant- itative/deductive approach, for example gathering data through questionnaires? Or, would you adopt a qualitative/inductive approach by conducting a series of

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interviews? Do you have access to those you wish to complete questionnaires or be available for interview? Set out your thinking.

The answers to the above questions will enable you to contact your supervisor and receive expert advice and guidance.

1.4 Planning your MBA project proposal

The template in this section provides an overview of the project proposal. You should to start thinking about the content of your proposal. The proposal is worth 25% of your project mark so really needs to be well developed effort. You might make a preliminary proposal which can be discussed with your module tutor before you provide a more detailed proposal for submission.

Template−MBA Project Proposal Form Your project proposal must give as much information as possible about what you intend to do and how you will go about it. It must be typed on A4 size paper and contain the following:

1. Your Contact Details

Name, Degree and Class Name, Registration ID Number, email address, phone number where you can be reached during your project work

2. Project Title

Give the title of your proposed project. Later, as you delve more deeply into your subject, you may wish to change the original title to more accurately reflect what your project is about. Your supervisor will advise you on this.

3. Purpose of the Project and your Reasons for Choosing it

State clearly and concisely the purpose and motivation for your project.

4. Project Question(s)

What is your research question(s), what do you expect your work to accom- plish, and what conclusions do you hope to draw from it? Please remember to confine your aims to what you really can accomplish in the time avail- able and with the resources at your disposal. If you are going to work with a hypothesis−what is it?

5. Personal Learning Objectives

What do you personally want to gain from carrying out the research and how you will know if you have achieved it?

6. Relevant Past Studies

What theories will you draw on to shape your research? What do ‘leading authorities’ in your subject area have to say about it? This information will help you (a) to develop and support your own views, and (b) to demonstrate to your readers that you are aware of such previous work in your field. Always include references.

7. Sources of Data

What types of information will you need to collect in order to answer your project question(s), where will you get it from and how accessible is it.

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Can you get access to a Company or organisation(s)? There are two kinds of data: primary, which you collect yourself, perhaps by using interviews, questionnaires or observation, and secondary, which has already been published and collated for some other purpose, such as annual reports, management reports, company surveys or the Internet, and which you can re-analyse to help answer your research question. Be specific about what sources of primary and/or secondary data you will use in your project.

8. Proposed Methodology

What is your proposed research approach and research strategy? What methods will you use to collect and analyse your data? For example, if you are going to investigate a problem in a particular organisation, what ‘tools’, such as interviews, questionnaires, personal observations, examination of written records or of systems will you employ and how will you process the results? In short, how are you going to get your information and use it in order to answer your project question(s)?

9. Anticipated Problems

What difficulties might you have to overcome in conducting your project? Is it going to be difficult for you to gain access to the information, either primary or secondary, that you will need? If so, what can you do about it? Can you foresee any other snags that might hinder your work and how do you propose to deal with them? Pre-planning will improve the chances of project success.

10. Outline of Chapters

Give a very brief summary of the contents of each of your proposed chapters. This provides you and your supervisor with an outline plan to work to. You may have to make some changes as you obtain more inform- ation, but it is essential to create such a framework at the outset.

11. Expected Schedule

How long do you expect to take to complete your project? State as precisely as you can:

• the overall time scale, including key milestones;

• the target date for completion of your first two chapters;

• other deadlines which you intend to set yourself;

• when you expect your final draft to be ready, and the target date for completion of your project.

Final point − Your proposal should be 2,500−3,000 words. Once your pro- posal has been submitted it will be marked and sent to academic staff in the business school staff so that supervision can be arranged.

A copy of this proposal should be sent to Jean Shields in the business school office.

12. Supervision

The supervisor’s role is to guide you through your project and to monitor your progress.

Supervisor’s Name: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Supervisor’s Signature: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Date: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Having read through the proposal template, now move on to look at reflective exercise 1.4 and critique research proposal.

Reflective exercise 1.4

Read the ‘CAP AIRLINES’ research proposal then attempt the questions at the end of the proposal.

Daniel Lourenço is a Portuguese International Business student. Born in Reguen- gos de Monsaraz, he is an active sportsman, excelling in football and swimming. As a young man Daniel has developed a keen interest in aviation. He has just started writing his master thesis and he has handed in his research proposal to his company advisor, Leonor Soares Henriques Pais. Leonor is a senior oper- ations manager for CAP airlines, a Portuguese aviation company. Leonor has been working for CAP airlines since 2008 and he is responsible for ensuring that business operations are efficient in terms of using as little resources as needed, and effective in terms of meeting customer requirements. Leonor’s job is quite hectic and ever since he has started, Leonor has been working long hours. Daniel and Leonor have agreed to meet in a few days to discuss Daniel’s research proposal.

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

1.1 Introduction

The story below is one of the many typical complaints posted on an airline complaint website (http://www.airlinecomplaints.org) describing passengers’ experiences with CAP Portugal. CAP is the airline of PLC Travel Group, a leading international travel corporation based in Lisbon.

CAP−Nightmare

On 23 September 2010 I was flying from Milan to Lisbon and then to Faro with CAP Portugal having the worst experience ever in my life. First of all, the delay from Milan to Lisbon made me to miss flight to Faro. They put me in the next flight 7 hours later which was also delayed for 3 hours and made me to have a total time of 16 hours spend from Milan to Faro which is more than unacceptable. I have had delays with other airlines as well in the past but CAP is something different. They didn’t grant me the entrance to their Lounge in order to find some quietness and make some phone calls to reschedule all my appointments which I lost due to their delays. I had to wait for 45 minutes at the transfer desk which was manned only with 4 people; the slowest people I ever seen in my life, helping to form a queue at Lisbon airport of more than 200 meters with people who lost their planes. CAP People were rude, barely English speaking, not helpful at all and when we at last got on a plane they served us a lousy sandwich. From Lisbon to Faro they didn’t had the smallest dignity to give us a glass of water, although they knew that we were waiting the whole evening at terminal 2 at Lisbon where we could not even get a sandwich to eat. At my return on 27 September from Faro to Lisbon the CAP Pilot made the worst landing I have ever had in my life

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with the most people in the plane praying. CAP means for me “Choose Another Plane!”

PLC Travel Group was formed eight years ago by the merger of First Interna- tional Holidays with the tourism division of NTI Portugal. PLC Travel Group car- ries the brands ‘Arches’, ‘Portugal International’ and ‘CAP’, and it is the largest tour operator in Portugal. PLC Portugal has its own airline company (CAP) and owns a franchise chain of CAP travel agencies. CAP carries out charter and regu- lar flights to medium haul destinations such as the Mediterranean, North Africa and the Red Sea and to long haul destinations such as the Caribbean. Today CAP’s fleet consists of three (new) Boeings 737-800 and four (outdated) Boeings 767-300. Because the Boeings 767 are rather outdated they need more main- tenance than the average airplane. Despite an intense maintenance program, these planes have a lot of technical problems. Consequently, the long haul fleet of CAP has dealt with a lot of delays recently. New long haul planes have been ordered, but these planes will not be delivered before 2016. This means that more delays will inevitably occur. For this reason CAP needs to obtain more knowledge on the wait experience of passengers during delays and the effects of this experience on customer satisfaction and the evaluation of the service CAP provides.

This research proposal will address the problem and problem statement in section 1.2. Section 1.3 details the research questions that will help to answer the problem statement. Next, section 1.4 discusses the relevance of the project. Section 1.5 provides a brief description of the research design, whereas section 1.6 includes information on the time frame of this study. Finally, this research proposal will provide a selected bibliography.

1.2 Problem Indication and Problem Statement

Prior research has claimed that service waits can be controlled by two tech- niques: operations management and/or management of perceptions. For CAP it is very difficult to obtain ‘zero defects’ (no delays). Hence, this project will focus on managing the perceptions of the wait experience: because CAP cannot control the actual amount of delays and wait duration (recall that they work with a number of outdated planes), the company must focus on controlling the customer’s perception of the waiting experience. To do this successfully it is important to know the variables that influence the perception of this wait- ing experience and the possible impact of waiting on customer satisfaction and service evaluations. More specifically, this project focuses on the following problem statement:

How do delays affect consumers’ service evaluations?

Drawing from prior research in the areas of waiting, service evaluations, attri- bution theory, and mood theory, hypotheses are generated regarding the rela- tionships among a delay, affect, and service evaluations. The hypothesized relationships are tested in a field setting involving delayed CAP airline passen- gers.

1.3 Research Questions

To deal with the preceding problem statement, the following research questions are answered:

1. How does a delay affect service evaluations?

2. What are the affective consequences of delays and how does affect mediate the relationship between waiting and service evaluations?

3. How do situational variables (such as filled time) influence customer reac- tions to the delay?

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1.4 Relevance

Regarding the practical usefulness of the research project; this project gives CAP an indication of their level of performance during delays and shows what the effects of this performance are. The results of this project allow CAP to improve its service, to keep people even during delays ’smiling’.

1.5 Research Design

The hypotheses of this study will be tested with a standardized questionnaire. Data will be collected from passengers on delayed medium and long haul flights over a period of two months by the cabin crew. Delays on outbound and inbound flights will be used to gather data from passengers. Flights are only sampled if the post-schedule wait is more than one hour. The passengers are asked to fill out and hand in the questionnaire at the end of the flight (approximately one hour before the airplane will land). Post-flight services, such as luggage pick-up, are ignored for practical reasons. Asking the passengers to fill out a questionnaire after they leave the plane will cause a further delay.

1.6 Time Frame

The time frame necessary for this project is approximately six months. During these six months, periodic reports will be provided on the progress being made.

1.7 Selected Bibliography

Folkes, V. S., Koletsky, S., and Graham, J. L. (1987). A Field Study of Causal Infer- ences and Consumer Reaction: The View from the Airport. Journal of Consumer Research, 13, 534−539.

Oliver, R. L. (1996). Satisfaction: A Behavioral Perspective on the Consumer. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Richins, M. L. (1987). A Multivariate Analysis of Responses to Dissatisfaction. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 15, 24-31.

Smith, A. K. and Bolton, R. N. (2002). The Effect of Customers’ Emotional Responses to Service Failures on Their Recovery Effort Evaluations and Sat- isfaction Judgments. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 30, 5-23.

Taylor, S. (1994). Waiting for Service: The Relationship Between Delays and Evaluations of Service. Journal of Marketing, 58, 56-69.

Westbrook, R. A. (1987). Product/Consumption-Based Affective Responses and Postpurchase Processes. Journal of Marketing Research, 24, 258-270.

Provide an evaluation of Daniel’s problem statement and research questions. Use the following criteria:

a. The background of the problem is clear.

b. The goal of the research project is clear.

c. The problem statement is formulated in a neutral and unambiguous way.

d. The problem statement is precise and specific.

e. The problem statement is relevant.

f. The problem statement is feasible.

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g. The specific research questions follow logically from the problem state- ment.

h. The specific research questions are precisely written and lead to observable outcomes.

Improve the section “Relevance”.

Do you think that the section “Research Design” provides enough information? Why (not)?

Does the section “Time Frame” provide enough information? Improve this section if necessary.

Explain how a literature review helps Daniel to solve CAP’s problem.

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Topic summary

There are two key points to always keep in mind to ensure success in delivering a good MBA project on time.

1. Think carefully about your research approach. Will it be deductive and quantit- ative? Or, will it be inductive and qualitative? This is key project and will determ- ine, in large measure, whether you will successfully address your research objectives.

2. Delivering your MBA project on time requires careful planning and execution. Develop a plan and stick to it.

If you feel ready to attempt the End of Unit Progress Test for Topic 1, follow this link.

References

© Collis, J. and Hussey, R. (2009) Business Research: A practical guide for undergraduate and postgraduate students, (3rd edn.). New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

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Literature Review

Learning outcomes

After completing the study of this topic you should be able to:

• understand the concept of a literature review;

• know how to select sources and search them for information;

• know the structure and features of a good MBA literature review.

The prescribed reading for this topic is from the core text: Sekaran and Bougie (2010) Research Methods for Business, Chapter 4.

2.1 What is a literature review?

A literature review is a selective analysis of existing research which is relevant to your topic, showing how it relates to your project. Therefore, it is both the selection and the evaluation of published or unpublished documents available about your proposed topic. Such a review will help to develop a conceptual or theoretical background for your research. It shows that you are familiar with earlier research on the topic and that there is continuity between this earlier research and the research which you propose. Thus, a good MBA literature review should synthesise available information, ideas, data and evidence on the topic selected for the MBA project.

An MBA project should enable you to look at a management or business issue from a specific angle, to shape your thinking, and to spark useful insights on the topic of your research. A good literature review should tell the reader about the key factors, frameworks and theory about the management or business issue that you have chosen to research.

2.2 Why is a literature review required?

Your literature review is required in order to:

• Find out what other scholars have written about the topic you intend to research.

• To learn about the methods and approaches that other scholars have used in researching the topic you intend to research. What methods have they used? Should you be using the same or different methods?

• To learn about the theory that underpins the area you intend to research.

• To demonstrate to your audience that your contribution is new−different from everyone else’s.

Finally, always remember that nobody will take your research seriously unless you can demonstrate through the literature review that you know what other researchers have found about the area you have chosen for your MBA project.

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2.3 Sources

The first stage in a literature review involves the identification of published (and sometimes in an MBA project unpublished) sources of material about the topic you will be researching in your MBA project. The quality of a literature review depends on the selection of sources. These may include books, academic journals, reports, theses, conference proceedings, and the like. For an MBA project the most useful sources are books and journal articles. Books published by reputable publishers will have been edited and reviewed while articles in academic journals are peer reviewed. The literature review in a good MBA project tends to rely heavily on journal articles.

An enormous amount of data can also be found on the World Wide Web. Please note that the Internet is unregulated and unmonitored. Therefore, reports and other information which can be sourced through the Web should be used with caution. Think about who has placed the data on the Internet. For an MBA project the internet can be source of up-to-date and relevant information but be careful about its reliability.

Reflective exercise 2.1

Books versus journal articles versus the Web. Think about which tend to be the best for:

Currency?

Authority?

2.4 Searching the literature

Over the past 20 years, information and communication technologies have trans- formed the way in scholars conduct a literature search. Almost every library has online computer systems which facilitate the location of published data. This data can usually be accessed remotely, for example, from your home and office. The UWS library is at the forefront of many of these developments and provides a wonderful resource when conducting an MBA project. You will gain greatly by investing time to become familiar with the services the UWS library provides. In particular you should become familiar how to access journals electronically. UWS subscribes to many of these online and they provide an invaluable resource to the MBA researcher.

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Many of you will already be familiar with literature search techniques. Notwith- standing, here is an exercise that will help you recap some key points about search- ing academic literature. You should keep these in mind in order to make the most effective use of your time.

Reflective exercise 2.2

First, conduct a keyword search on the business or management topic that you have chosen for your MBA project. Place a key word(s) about your research topic into one of the main search engines such as Google.

Second, scan though the results and focus on those with academic domain names such as . . . ac.uk or . . . edu.au. Academic sites are more likely to provide reliable data. Download the information and see where it leads you.

Third, in parallel with the above approach, conduct a key word search on one of the selected academic search engines such as Science Direct. The objective here to find a recent academic journal article(s) covering the topic that you have chosen for your own research. Such an article(s) will have an up-to-date set of references covering your area of research; you can then set about reading the articles that have been referenced.

TipRemember to learn word search techniques. There are there are three in partic- ular which you should become adept at using.

1. Learn to use AND & OR. If you want to enter more than one term into a search engine you should link the terms with either the connecting word and or the connecting word or. Linking two terms with and will narrow your search to find only results that contain both terms.

For example, a search using entrepreneurs and growth will find only the results that contain both the term entrepreneurs and the term growth. It won’t find any results that just refer to entrepreneurs on their own or just refer to growth without any mention of entrepreneurs.

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For example, a search using entrepreneurs or growth will find results that just mention entrepreneurs, results that just mention growth AND results that men- tion both entrepreneurs and growth. 2. This is a method of broadening a search by retrieving all words with

2. Learn to use TRUNCATION. This is a method of broadening a search by retriev- ing all words with the same stem but with variant endings. To search, use the stem of the word followed (without a gap) by the truncation symbol. The truncation symbol may vary between databases but commonly * or ? are used.

For example: Recruit* would retrieve: recruit, recruitment, recruiting, recruits, etc.

3. Learn to use Wildcards.

Wildcards are another method of broadening a search where a word has more than one possible spelling or you are unsure of the spelling. One or more characters within the word are replaced with a wildcard symbol (again the symbol differs depending on the database used).

For example: Organi*ation would retrieve: organisation, organization

A question which is often asked by MBA students is: ‘how many references should be included in a project?’ These can be no definitive answer to this−what we expect is that a good MBA project will have comprehensive set of references. However, as a rule of thumb a good project will reference in excess of 30−40 journal articles, books and web citations. In addition another 5−10 references on research methods would be contained in the methodology section. These references should be as up-to-date as possible with most being from sources published in the previous 10 or so years.

2.5 Writing your literature review

A good MBA literature review is logically structured and clear. Let’s take the example of a student whose topic is on the subject of organisational culture. A possible structure for an MBA literature review on this topic could be as follows:

• Introduction− this section sets out briefly the structure of the literature review.

• What is organisational culture?− in this section the concept of organisational culture could be discussed along with how scholars define it.

• Why is organisational culture important? − in this section of the literat- ure review research about the significance of organisational culture could be reviewed.

• Frameworks of organisational culture− the key typologies from the literature could be set out and reviewed.

• How is organisational culture assessed? − the main ways in which organisa- tional culture is measured/assessed could be set out and reviewed.

• How can organisational culture be shaped and changed?− the literature about this area could be summarised.

• Summary and conclusion− the key points to emerge from the literature review.

Having read through the proposal template, now move on to look at reflective exercise 1.4 and critique research proposal.

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Reflective exercise 2.3

Think about the area you wish to research. Using the above example, sketch out a possible structure for your literature review.

2.6 Managing the literature

You will need to devise a system to build a comprehensive literature review. Pro- fessional researchers usually use bibliographic file management software such as Endnote. Many MBA students use Excel or other software packages to keep man- age their references; others use a simple card index system. Whatever system you choose is up to you − but you are strongly advised to be organized and diligent when it comes to keeping references.

TipOne useful tip in conducting an MBA literature review is to aim to find a small number of recent journal articles in your research area. Look at how these scholars have written their literature review. What do these literature reviews have in com- mon in terms of writing style? Also, look at the references in these journal articles. These are the articles that you should be reading for your own MBA literature review.

2.7 Referencing

Referencing is acknowledging your source in sufficient detail so that anyone wishing to find the work you are citing can do so for themselves. In an academic body of work, it is important to show the source of materials you have used or else you may lose marks for poor referencing; and, if you do not reference properly your work may be regarded as plagiarism. Hence if you use Lewin’s Change model without referencing Lewin, it will be assumed that you are claiming the change model as your own− even if your name is not Lewin.

In an MBA project, the sources are acknowledged briefly in the body of your text and then at the end of your MBA project full details of each reference are presented in a reference list. This is the standard academic way of writing and presenting refer- ences. Look at any academic journal article and you will see that this pattern is fol- lowed. However, you will see that the precise way of referencing varies from journal to journal and from book to book. MBA students must adhere to what is known as the Harvard Referencing System. There are various ways in which this referencing sys- tem is interpreted. The version that you must use is set out on the UWS library web- site at: http://www.uws.ac.uk/about-uws/services-for-students/library/guides- and-online-help

The importance of following the UWS rules on referencing cannot be over-stated. See the appendix in chapter 4 of the core text for referencing and citing sources.

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Reflective exercise 2.4

Read through the Anchoring effects in stock return estimates, then answer the questions.

Anchoring effects in stock return estimates Charles Bradley is a finance student who loves to play the stock market in his spare time. He likes the thrill of rapid price movements and he knows that if he can catch the right price to buy and sell he will make lot of money. Charles has a strong interest in irrational financial decision making and the systematic errors that market participants make. These errors do not only affect stock prices and returns, they also create market inefficiencies. Charles is convinced that at some time or another he will be able to take advantage of these inefficiencies.

Charles is currently engaged in a research project on anchoring. Anchoring is a term used in psychology to describe the common human tendency to rely too heavily, or anchor, on specific information when making decisions, even though this information may have no logical relevance to the decision at hand. People often anchor, or overly rely, on a specific value − for instance a recent stock price− and then adjust to that value; once the anchor is set there is a bias toward that anchor. Along these lines, investors frequently invest in the stocks of companies that have fallen considerably in a very short amount of time. In this case, investors are anchoring on a recent ‘high’ that the stock has achieved and consequently believe that the drop in price provides an opportunity to buy the stock at a discount.

Charles sometimes feels that anchoring is like driving a car only by looking in the rear view mirror; it will only show you what is behind you. He believes that if one drives one’s car based only on what one sees in the rear view mirror, one will end up with an accident. “In the late 1990s, for example, the stock market was going up and investors simply jumped on the bandwagon and kept buying more and more shares,” Charles explains to his roommate and best friend David. “Even though this resulted in a stock market bubble, investors’ general tendency was to just leave things be without making the effort to take any proper decisions with respect to asset allocation and risk − decisions that could have helped them to fare better in the future, when the markets turned. If investors anchor themselves to the idea that the market will keep going up, they will inevitably find themselves in a risk category that isn’t the right fit for them, and they’ll be putting themselves at a great risk when that market turns”, Charles continued. “Conversely, in a period of prolonged market downturn, people tend to anchor themselves to the idea that stock prices are just going to keep going down. This leads to an absolute disregard for investing in the equity market, and results in a situation where individuals end up in a risk category that does not fit them either.” Charles believes that what we are currently seeing is negative anchoring, where people are framing their investments in the context of the most recent financial crisis and all the negative news that they are constantly getting about the economy, unemployment, bankruptcies and the like. Charles’ research project focuses on whether and how market participants’ long-term stock return expectations are influenced by anchoring effects and to what extent expertise reduces these effects. After having developed a research proposal and a problem statement Charles is now ready to engage in a critical review of the literature.

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Explain the various functions of the critical literature review that Charles is about to take on.

“The first step of a literature review includes the identification of the various unpublished and published materials that are available on the topic of interest, and gaining access to these.”

Discuss at least three different data sources that Charles could use and explain how Charles will benefit from using these specific data sources.

Topic summary

In this topic we discussed the critical literature review. We started this topic by describing various functions of the literature review. Subsequently, we discussed various aspects of carrying out the literature review: data sources, searching for literature, evaluating the literature, and documenting the literature review. This topic also considered how to structure and write a literature review. Finally, we discussed two pitfalls you have to be aware of when you summarize, add to, or challenge the work of others: misrepresenting the work of others and plagiarism. Referencing theory and concepts is something you have been doing throughout your MBA and it is assumed by the time you are doing your MBA project you will be well capable of acknowledging the work of others. The appendix to chapter 4 of the core text offers information on (1) online databases, (2) bibliographical indexes, (3) the APA format for references, and (4) notes on referencing previous studies and quoting original sources in the literature review section.

If you feel ready to attempt the End of Unit Progress Test for Topic 2, follow this link.

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Quantitative Research Methods

Learning outcomes

After completing the study of this topic you should be able to:

• understand the quantitative approach to business and management research;

• identify a range of quantitative research methods applicable to different management and business research topics;

• understand and apply key methods of quantitative data analysis;

• be able to design questionnaires to tap different variables;

• be able to evaluate questionnaires, distinguishing the “good” and “bad” questions therein.

The prescribed reading for this topic is from the core text: Sekaran and Bougie (2010) Research Methods for Business, Chapters 2, 9, 14 and 15.

Introduction

Quantitative methods are used and accepted in business and management research. Throughout your MBA you will have been involved in quantitative analysis. Any time you have analysed the figures in a case study or exercise you will have been quantifying data. In the work place if you are looking at sales trends or trying to discern relationships between resources used (inputs) against outcomes achieved you will be carrying out quantitative analysis.

In quantitative research we are interested in what has happened, or how often something has occurred or how much has been produced. Quantitative research is particularly appropriate when we want to apply a measure − in other words to quantify.

Using a quantitative approach to our data means that we assume that a numerical analysis of our data can yield valuable insights into the way that people make decisions as these will impact the data. When we do quantitative analysis we are involved in counting and measuring data in different ways, in estimating means and in finding similarities and difference between groups. The point of this is not just to produce impressive tables of statistics, but to give the reader an idea of what our data looks like and what makes it interesting and meaningful. Note we are not attempting to turn you into a statistician or a mathematician. The only objective

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here is give you the confidence to engage with numbers in your strategic business project.

Quantitative researchers tend to be concerned about four areas:

1. Measurement − the need to have measures for concepts and the ability to map concept properties. There is a focus on rules and procedures need to be followed to ensure the research can be replicated. The measures need to be able to reliable and valid for what is being measured. For example how would you measure concepts like motivation or business ethics?

2. Causality − the researchers want to explain why things are the way they are. They seek to identify relationship between dependent and independent vari- ables. They also want to have confidence in their findings that the causal infer- ences hold true.

3. Generalization − the researchers want to know if the findings can be gener- alised beyond the confines of the particular context. The research will have been based on a sample can the findings be generalised from sample to popu- lation? To a certain extent the ability to generalise findings will depend on how representative the samples are.

4. Replication − is another concern of researchers and as such they wish to minimise contamination from researcher biases or values. The will be explicit in their description of procedures and control of conditions of study. The concern is the ability to replicate in differing contexts.

Quantitative research has also been criticised for a number of reasons:

One criticism is that quantitative researchers fail to distinguish people and social institutions from real world. Another view is that the measurement processes adop- ted possesses an artificial and spurious sense of precision and accuracy. Other criticisms indicate the view that an over reliance on instruments and procedures hinders the connection between research and everyday life. A final criticism is that the analysis of relationships between variables creates a static view of social life that is independent of people’s lives. An awareness of these views provides you with a balanced understanding of the differences between the qualitative and quantitative researchers stand points.

There is no particular best approach and at times perhaps students have preferred to follow a qualitative approach because it may seem easier to carry out interviews or focus groups due to a fear of numbers and statistics associated with quantitative techniques. As has been stated in earlier sessions it is possible to have a mixed methods approach to your research. For example you can use questionnaires and interviews, or you may find that your questionnaires also have questions that enable respondents to provide written responses as well as numerate one. Qualitative and quantitative research approaches can complement each other. For further enlight- enment consider reading up on triangulation.

3.1 The process of quantitative research

The approach to quantitative research can follow a process similar to Figure 3.1. Note there is no guarantee you will follow every step but at least you are aware of the possible steps.

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Figure 3.1 The typical steps in the quantitative research process

Chapter 2 in the core text provides an example of the steps followed.

1. Identify a broad problem area − for example a drop in sales, frequent pro- duction interruptions, incorrect accounting results, low-yielding investments, disinterestedness of employees in their work, customer switching.

2. Define the problem statement − to find solutions for identified problems, a problem statement that includes the general objective and research questions of the research should be developed. Gathering initial information about the factors that are possibly related to the problem will help us to narrow the broad problem area and to define the problem statement.

3. Develop hypotheses − In this step, variables are examined to ascertain their contribution or influence in explaining why the problem occurs and how it can be solved. The network of associations identified among the variables is then theoretically woven, together with justification as to why they might influence the problem. From a theorised network of associations among the variables, certain hypotheses or educated conjectures can be generated. The hypothesis must be testable (see Chapter 2). A hypothesis must also be falsifiable. That is, it must be possible to disprove the hypothesis.

4. Determine measures − unless the variables in the theoretical framework are measured in some way, we will not be able to test our hypotheses. For example to test the hypothesis that unresponsive employees affect customer switch- ing, we need to operationalize unresponsiveness and customer switching. See measurement of variables in Chapter 11 and Chapter 12.

5. Data collection− after we have determined how to measure our variables, data with respect to each variable in the hypothesis need to be obtained. These data then form the basis for data analysis. Data collection is extensively discussed in Chapter 7 to Chapter 12.

6. Data analysis − in the data analysis step, the data gathered are statistically analysed to see if the hypotheses that were generated have been supported. For instance, to see if unresponsiveness of employees affects customer switching, we might want to do a correlational analysis to determine the relationship between these variables. Hypotheses are tested through appropriate statistical analysis, as discussed in Chapter 15.

7. Interpretation of data− now we must decide whether our hypotheses are sup- ported or not by interpreting the meaning of the results of the data analysis. For instance, if it was found from the data analysis that increased responsiveness of employees was negatively related to customer switching (say, 0.3), then we can deduce that if customer retention is to be increased, our employees have to be trained to be more responsive. Another inference from this data analysis is that

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responsiveness of our employees accounts for (or explains) 9% of the variance in customer switching (0.32). Based on these deductions, we are able to make recommendations on how the “customer switching” problem may be solved (at least to some extent); we have to train our employees to be more flexible and communicative.

Note that even if the hypothesis on the effect of unresponsiveness on customer switching is not supported, our research effort has still been worthwhile. Hypo- theses that are not supported allow us to refine our theory by thinking about why it is that they were not supported. We can then test our refined theory in future research. In summary, there are seven steps involved in identifying and resolving a problematic issue, (see Application of the hypothetico-deductive method in organizations− The CIO Dilemma).

Reflective exercise 3.1

Consider what you have read in the study guide and Chapter 2 in the core text, then go on to comment on the following situation.

Hint: Essentially you need to consider how the management problem could have been researched.

The dilemmas of Dorothy Dunning

Dorothy Dunning, Chief Production Manager, was on top of the world just two years ago. In her non-traditional job, she was cited to be the real backbone of the company, and her performance was in no small measure responsible for the mergers the institution was contemplating with other well-known global corporations. Of late, though, the products of the company had had to be recalled several times owing to safety concerns. Quality glitches and production delays also plagued the company. To project a good image to consumers, Dunning developed a very reassuring website and made sweeping changes in the manufacturing processes to enhance the quality of the product, minimise defects, and enhance the efficiency of the workers. A year after all these changes, the company continues to recall defective products!

3.2 Data collection techniques

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3.2.1 Questionnaire design

A questionnaire is a pre-formulated written set of questions to which respondents record their answers, usually within rather closely defined alternatives. They are an efficient data collection mechanism when a study is descriptive or explanatory in nature. Questionnaires are generally less expensive and time consuming than interviews and observation, but they also introduce a much larger chance of non- response and non-response error.

Questionnaires provide a critical communication link between the researcher and the respondent, see Chapter 3 of the core text. To be effective the questionnaire must:

1. communicate to the respondent what the researcher is asking for.

2. communicate to the researcher what the respondent has to say.

Questionnaires can be administered in a number of ways. The advantages and disadvantages of personally administered questionnaires, mail questionnaires, and electronic questionnaires are presented in Table 9.1 in the core text. Questionnaires can also be administered over the phone. With all approaches the main issue is response. How many questionnaires will be returned and even then a bigger issue how many have been completed! This leads to a key aspect re questionnaires − getting the design right. Figure 9.1 in the core text provides an excellent overview of the design process and the questions that need asked.

A starting point would be to ask three questions:

1. Who are you targeting with your questionnaire? Consider business executives, they are busy people and may get a number of requests for information−what does this mean for your questionnaire?

2. What is the best way to contact them?

3. Who will complete the questionnaire − you or the respondent (target)? This has implications on your time and questionnaire accuracy and return.

The questions you will use will require some thought. To a certain extent questions can be standardised. There are initial considerations how complex is the inform- ation you are seeking. This may require you to think carefully the sequence of questions, what we might call a ‘funnel’ approach, see Figure 3.2. Respondents may not be comfortable providing sensitive information so you need to think through the question sequence to lead them there.

Figure 3.2 Question sequence

The number of questions is important, do you need to ask all the questions a common fault in questionnaires is the number, too many questions leads to many pages and a respondent who may not wish to complete.

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You need to consider if the respondent will understand the questions. So there is a need to consider the terminology used, also the jargon, for example asking a manager a question about the BCG (Boston Consulting Group matrix) assumes they know what you are talking about!

The question content is important, but there is also a need to consider if the ques- tions are necessary, the dilemma is the number of questions to ask and if the questions are sufficient.

We can also make assumption about data availability. If you think about it will the respondents be well informed and willing to take part in the questionnaire, and will they be able to recall or remember the experiences you are seeking, for example people often get confused about adverts they have seen. Some questions might be embarrassing and some respondents may provide you with what they think you want to hear. Equally if the question is one that may reflect badly on them they inflate answers (bluffing), for example if you ask about a respondent’s salary they may give a higher salary.

The questions can be designed in a way to ask for spontaneous answers, for example what adverts have you seen recently? Or the questions could use prompts, for example what soft drinks adverts have you seen recently? This might be seen as minor prompting, showing the respondent the advert and asking them if they have seen it is prompting.

Question phrasing is important, you should make the question easy to understand and easy to answer. This requires clear and simple words. There is a need to avoid biased words or vague/ambiguous words. You should be avoiding leading questions and double barrelled questions.

In terms of respondent response you have options in terms of open ended and close ended. You can also have multiple-choice. For example:

• open ended

“What do you think of the choice of food available in the University canteen?”

• closed ended

Are you a student at UWS? Yes No

• multiple-choice

Which daily newspaper do you read?

A. The Herald

B. The Daily Record

C. The Scotsman

D. The Sun

E. Other please state . . . .

In terms of design and multiple-choice you have to think about options such as:

• number of questions to include

• position bias (favour the first on the list)

• balance (positives and negatives)

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• ranking questions

• attitude scales

As we stated earlier in the topic there is a need to think about the question sequence (remember Figure 3.2). The questions at the start should engage interest then move from general to specific and end with personal questions (if required). One approach to thinking about question sequence is the acronym ORDER, see below.

Opening questions: simple;

Rudimentary or basic information obtained first;

Difficult questions toward the end;

Examine influence on subsequent questions;

Review the sequence to ensure a logical order.

Questionnaire layout is also important, you need to consider the paper quality, the length of the questionnaire, spacing, font/colour/borders, routing and use a variety of questioning techniques. The object is to get who you send the questionnaire to complete it.

A final task is the process of pre-test, revision and final version. Questionnaires need piloted, ideally 10−15 people (or 10% of your sample size), you are checking for clarity, logical flow, routing and length.

Reflective exercise 3.2

The following questions are taken from a questionnaire issued to new car owners by a local car showroom.

Considering each of the questions in turn state whether you think the ques- tions could be improved. If so suggest an alternative. Once you have worked through your answer have a look at the suggested answer.

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Reflective exercise 3.3

The next questionnaire is looking at Outsourcing IT: Strategy, Benefits and Lessons Learnt in today’s Global Energy Organisations. Consider what you see as the good points and bad points.

Questionnaire: Outsourcing my organisation is:

A. Major international EP company (operates in more than 10 countries glob- ally)

B. Mid size international EP company (operates in 10 or less countries glob- ally)

C. Regional EP company (operates within the region of <5 countries)

D. National oil company

E. Service company (including contractor)

Comments:

which part, if any, of your IT function is/planned to be outsourced (select 1 or more)?

A. Infrastructure (Telecoms, Computing, Helpdesk etc)

B. Applicatons (Software development, Apps support etc)

C. Information Management (Data, Document, Knowledge mgt)

D. Programme and Project Management

E. All

Comments:

what strategy did/will you employ in achieving your IT outsouring objectives?

A. Multiple suppliers

B. Strategic partnerships with key suppliers

C. Spin-off IT company from existing organisation

D. Single supplier

E. Others . . . please specify

Comments:

what are your main concerns/issues on IT outsourcing (please rank 1 to 5)?

A. Service quality

B. Information security

C. Supplier management

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D. Innovation

E. Others . . . please specify

Comments:

what are/were the primary business drivers for outsourcing IT (please rank 1 to 5)?

A. Cost reductions

B. Improve IT service levels

C. Streamline organisation structure

D. Globalisation

E. Others . . . please specify

Comments:

what do you now see as the cost vs benefits of IT outsourcing in your organisa- tion?

A. Benefits far outweigh the costs

B. Not much difference so far

C. Visible impact on bottomline

D. A mistake

E. Others . . . please specify

Comments:

how do you see IT outsourcing developing in the next 3 to 5 years?

A. More IT services will be ’commoditised’ and outsourced by more organ- isations

B. IT is seen as an EP core competency and insourced rather than outsourced

C. More competitive suppliers driving standardisation and lower costs

D. Reduced IT outsourcing due to other factors e.g. Govt regulatory compli- ance

E. Others . . . please specify

Comments:

what model of IT outsourcing is likely to emerge over the next 5 to 10 years (rank 1 to 5)

A. outsourcing maturing into hosting service i.e. pay per use

B. shared services to multiple companies including competitors (cost shar- ing)

C. shared services provided by national oil company or its suppliers

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D. Others . . . please specify

E. Others . . . please specify

Comments:

What would do to improve it? Once you have worked through your answers you can look at the suggested answer.

3.2.2 Observation

An alternative approach to gathering data is observation. This is a different form to what has been described as observation in the core text. For example if you wished to investigate interactions in a class room then you might count the number of times this happened. If it was a mixed class you might want to look at the interactions between a tutor and the female and male students, and you might also wish to look at interactions between students (male to male, male to female, female to female). So counting and noting instances can allow you to generate and then analyse data quantitatively. Equally you could be observing people working, or customers in a queue, reviewing production quality, customer service, etc. At the end of the day if we can measure the activity we can use quantitative techniques to analyse the data.

3.3 Quantitative data analysis 1

You may already have gathered some data in the course of the exercises you have carried out in this module. This may have come from a pilot survey/interview, from observations or as a result of examining secondary data in annual reports. You may have an initial impression from your data. For example, you may believe that a firm’s financial performance has improved beyond that of its competitors. Your impressions of the firm, and those expressed in the media, may not be related to the actual figures− but you cannot tell unless you analyse it first.

Unless your data is clearly structured and analysed you will not be able to understand it and analyse it and you certainly will not be able to convince others. This is why being able to organise and describe your data adds value to your project. If you organise your data well you will also give the reader more confidence in your project as a whole. Unless you are downloading secondary collections of data, you will probably find that the data you gather is not in a structure that will enable you to analyse it. For example, you may have survey responses. You may also have data from different sources. You will need to collect the data together and put it into form that you can understand and process.

Is there any best way to organise data? To some extent it depends on the type of data that you have. If you have data that extends over a period of time (time series data) you will often begin with a vertical column of dates or years. The main point is that the organisation can be easily understood and analysed. For example, if you wanted to find out the impact of recent tax changes on the business community, you may have used questionnaires to gather data. The answers to your questions will provide you with initial data about your sample, such as age, marital status and employment

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status. Hopefully you have designed your questionnaire so that the different options are easy to organise. If you assign a number to each questionnaire they will be easier to identify later. Some of the questions will have numerical answers such as age, but to others you will have to assign codes for the various responses. If you can put these into your questionnaire design initially it will save you time later.

3.3.1 Presenting quantitative data

There are a number of standard techniques for presenting quantitative data in projects. These include tables, graphs, bar and pie charts, and histograms.

When to use Tables

Tables which summarise raw data can be useful aids for analysis and interpretation. They are also useful for presenting your findings in your project. Tables are also useful for displaying category and variable data. If you choose to use tables to display your data you need to ensure that it is clearly labelled with all the information your readers need in order to interpret it for themselves. Some of the information is given in the caption for the table and some is in the table itself. Writing an appropriate caption for a table is very important, as captions should contain information which helps the reader interpret the table. Clearly labelled tables with captions speak for themselves, they save you having to describe your data in words.

It is also important when using a table is that it should not contain too much information. Tables that are less complex can have much more impact, even if they contain information that can be extrapolated from their larger parent tables.

When to use Bar Charts, Pie Charts and Histograms

Bar charts, pie charts and histograms are sometimes more effective ways of rep- resenting data than tables. Bar and pie charts should be used to represent discrete category data. Histograms are normally used for continuous data. Bar charts repres- ent categories as columns and are commonly used to draw attention to differences between two or more categories.

Like bar charts, pie charts are useful for presenting discrete data. Each slice of the pie represents a particular category. The number of slices depends on the number of categories in the raw data (make sure you don’t have too many or too few). Pie charts are extremely useful for representing data expressed as percentages. If you want to compare two pies, the size of each circle must be in proportion to the number of cases it contains.

Histograms should be used whenever you have continuous data. The main differ- ence between a histogram and a bar chart is that the columns of a histogram are

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allowed to touch, whereas the bars of a bar chart should not touch. This is because the scale on the horizontal axis should always describe a continuous variable (such as ‘age group’) whereas on a bar chart, the horizontal axis should describe a dis- crete category. As with tables, the labelling of the axes of bar charts, pie charts and histograms, needs to be accurate, and captions must be thought out carefully.

When to use graphs

As well as histograms, graphs can be used to plot continuous data. They should not be used for discrete data because it makes no sense to draw lines joining discrete data points. Graphs are useful for looking at relationships between continuous variables. Both axes need to be clearly labelled, when you plan graphs choosing the scales for the axes is all important. Large effects can be diminished by an inappropriate scale. Conversely, small effects can be exaggerated.

When it comes to analysing quantitative data, there is less scope for individuality. Certain conventions have to be observed. Discrete data must be treated in a different way from data obtained from the measurement of continuous variables. However people do develop different styles/preferences of presenting and analysing data.

Misleading diagrams

From what we have read so far we can see it is important to consider how we present our data. At every step we make decisions on what to keep what to leave in so even before we start to present our data we are introducing bias. The decisions we make in what axis to use and colours also influences our readers.

Reflective exercise 3.4

Look at Figure 3.3.

Source: http://img0.tuicool.com/2eyYfe.png

Figure 3.3 Apple SmartPhone market share

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Can you see any bias or manipulation of the data? Make some notes then check the suggested answer.

Reflective exercise 3.5

Look at Figure 3.4.

Source: http://media.nbcchicago.com/images/410*307/Fox’s+Pie+Chart.jpg

Figure 3.4 The 2012 Presidential Run

Can you see any bias or manipulation of the data? Make some notes then check the suggested answer.

Reflective exercise 3.6 continues the theme by looking at graphs.

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Reflective exercise 3.6

Look at Figures 3.5A and B.

Source: unknown

Figure 3.5 Cellular phone usage

Can you see any bias or manipulation of the data? Which graph appears to show a greater increase in the use of cellular phones? Make some notes then check the suggested answer.

Presenting data effectively is important and Figure 3.6 gets this message across very well. See reflective exercise 3.7.

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Reflective exercise 3.7

Look at Figure 3.6.

Figure 3.6 Total expenditures

Can you see any problem with the display of the data? Make some notes then check the suggested answer.

Making sense of diagrams

The ACCENT principles for effective graphical display are useful guidelines on how to display data and these are helpful when it comes to considering the data you want to display and who your audience might be Burn (1993). See the criteria below:

Apprehension− are the links between variables maximised?

Clarity−are the most important elements or relations visually most prominent?

Consistency − are the elements, symbol shapes and colours consistent with their use in previous graphs?

Efficiency− is the graph easy to interpret?

Necessity− Is the graph a more useful way to represent the data than alternat- ives (table, text)?

Truthfulness− are the graph elements accurately positioned and scaled?

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Reflective exercise 3.8

Consider the ACCENT principles and revisit reflective exercises 3.4 to 3.7.

Are the ACCENT principles a useful approach to reviewing diagrams?

What lessons can you learn for your project?

3.4 Quantitative data analysis 2

There are three measures of central tendency: the mean, the median, and the mode. Measures of dispersion include the range, the standard deviation, the variance (where the measure of central tendency is the mean), and the interquartile range (where the measure of central tendency is the median).

3.4.1 Measures of central tendency

The mean, or the average, is a measure of central tendency that offers a general picture of the data without unnecessarily inundating one with each of the obser- vations in a data set. For example, the production department might keep detailed records on how many units of a product are being produced each day. However, to estimate the raw materials inventory, all that the manager might want to know is how many units per month, on average, the department has been producing over the past six months. This measure of central tendency - that is, the mean −might offer the manager a good idea of the quantity of materials that need to be stocked. The mean or average of a set of, say, ten observations, is the sum of the ten individual observations divided by ten (the total number of observations).

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The median is the central item in a group of observations when they are arrayed in either an ascending or a descending order.

In some cases, a set of observations does not lend itself to a meaningful repres- entation through either the mean or the median, but can be signified by the most frequently occurring phenomenon. For instance, in a department where there are 10 white women, 24 white men, 3 African American women, and 2 Asian women, the most frequently occurring group - the mode - is the white men. Neither a mean nor a median is calculable or applicable in this case. There is also no way of indicating any measure of dispersion. We have illustrated how the mean, median, and the mode can be useful measures of central tendency, based on the type of data we have.

The three measurements of dispersion connected with the mean are the range, the variance, and the standard deviation.

Range refers to the extreme values in a set of observations. The range is between 30 and 50 for Company A (a dispersion of 20 units), while the range is between 10 and 70 units (a dispersion of 60 units) for Company B.

Another more useful measure of dispersion is the variance. The variance is cal- culated by subtracting the mean from each of the observations in the data set, taking the square of this difference, and dividing the total of these by the number of observations. In the above example, the variance for each of the two companies is:

Variance for Company A = (30−40) 2+(40−40)2+(50−50)2

3 = 66.7

Variance for Company B = (10−40) 2+(40−40)2+(70−40)2

3 = 600

As we can see, the variance is much larger in Company B than Company A. This makes it more difficult for the manager of Company B to estimate how many goods to stock than it is for the manager of Company A. Thus, variance gives an indication of how dispersed the data in a data set are.

The standard deviation, which is another measure of dispersion for interval and ratio scaled data, offers an index of the spread of a distribution or the variability in the data. It is a very commonly used measure of dispersion, and is simply the square root of the variance. In the case of the above two companies, the standard deviation for Companies A and B would be√66.7 and√600 or 8.167 and 24.495, respectively. The mean and standard deviation are the most common descriptive statistics for interval and ratio scaled data.

Example 3.1

So to recap as we stated, a statistic is a number that describes a feature of your data.

Imagine we carried out a survey of students who enrolled at UWS in 2014.

The sample size is 598 and for the ages of those surveyed in 2014 the:

• average is 24 years and 11 months

• minimum value is 16

• maximum value is 73

The average, minimum, maximum and sample size are examples of statistics we can use to describe our data.

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Generally we use two statistics per data item. The first of these are measures of central tendency − a single value the data appears to clusters around, so we have the:

• Mean: the average over the values.

• Median: the middle value.

• Mode: most frequently occurring value.

We also use measures of dispersion − how spread out the data is Standard deviation, Quartiles and Percentiles. If we look at Figures 3.8 and 3.9 we can see a situation where the mean is the same but the standard deviation is different.

Figure 3.7 Average Age on enrolment (1)

Figure 3.8 Average Age on enrolment (2)

Use dispersion to distinguish between the two. Note the standard deviation in the

• first distribution of ages is 9.5

• second distribution of ages is 2.0

The data that is more spread out has larger standard deviation. So statistics allow us to describe our data.

3.4.2 Relationships between variables

In a research project that includes several variables, beyond knowing the descriptive statistics of the variables, we would often like to know how one variable is related to another. When two variables are seen as independent. This can be statistically confirmed by the chi-square (χ2) test - a nonparametric test - which indicates whether or not the observed pattern is due to chance. The χ2 test compares the

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expected frequency (based on probability) and the observed frequency, and the χ2

statistic is obtained by the formula:

χ2 = (Oi− Ei) 2

Ei

where χ2 is the chi-square statistic; Oi is the observed frequency of the ith cell; and Ei is the expected frequency. The χ2 statistic with its level of significance can be obtained for any set of nominal data through computer analysis (Excel). See Table 14.2 in the core text for an example of a contingency table.

Thus, in testing for differences in relationships among nominally scaled variables, the χ2 (chi-square) statistic comes in handy. The null hypothesis would be set to state that there is no significant relationship between two and the alternate hypo- thesis would state that there is a significant relationship. The chi-square statistic is associated with the degrees of freedom (df), which denote whether or not a signi- ficant relationship exists between two nominal variables. The number of degrees of freedom is one less than the number of cells in the columns and rows. If there are four cells (two in a column and two in a row), then the number of degrees of freedom would be 1: [(2 - 1) × (2 - 1)]. The chi-square statistic for various df is provided in Table III in the statistical tables toward the end of the core text.

Example 3.2

A manufacturing company has introduced Just-in-Time manufacturing and purchasing systems and is conscious that a vital factor is the quality of bought- in components.

As part of the programme of quality control, an investigation has been carried out on Part No 8766. This part is bought in from three suppliers X, Y and Z − and the results of a Good Inwards Quality Control Check on a sample of 500 components were as follows.

Product quality

Good Minor fault Major fault

Supplier X 95 3 2

Supplier Y 190 7 3

Supplier Z 195 3 2

The sample size of 500 was chosen on the basis of the proportion of Part No 8766 supplied by each of the three suppliers.

Hint: expected number is the (row total× column total) / Grand total, e.g.

Supplier X: Expected value for Good = (480× 100) 500

= 96

Required − investigate whether, based on the sample evidence, there is any relationship between quality levels and supplier.

Solution

Follow the steps.

1. You have the Observed values.

2. Set up your null hypothesis − no difference between supplier and quality of product provided.

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3. Set up the contingency table and include row and column totals. The contingency table in this example should have 3 rows and 3 columns

4. Calculate the expected values: Total column× Total row all divided by the grand total.

Product quality

Good Minor fault Major fault Total

Oi Ei Oi Ei Oi Ei

Supplier X 95 96 3 2.6 2 1.4 100

Supplier Y 190 192 7 5.2 3 2.8 200

Supplier Z 195 192 3 5.2 2 2.8 200

Total 480 480 13 13 7 7 500

5. Calculate (Oi− Ei)

6. Calculate (Oi − Ei)2 / Ei this gives a chi-square value for each observation in your table. You will need to calculate this value 9 times because you have 9 observations, add all these values together to get the Chi Square χ2 value for the investigation. In this case the χ2 = 2.1935.

7. Next you need to calculate the number of degrees of freedom, this comes from the contingency table (rows −1) × (columns − 1), so (3 − 1)(3 − 1) = 4. Looking up the chi-square table, choose 5% as your benchmark (it is normally 5%). At the 5% probability and 4 degrees of freedom we get a χ2

= 9.49. Our value of 2.1935 is less than the critical value of 9.49 so there is no evidence of any significant difference between suppliers.

3.4.3 Correlation

A Pearson correlation matrix will indicate the direction, strength, and significance of the bivariate relationships among all the variables that were measured at an interval or ratio level. The correlation is derived by assessing the variations in one variable as another variable also varies. For the sake of simplicity, let us say we have collected data on two variables - price and sales - for two different products. The volume of sales at every price level can be plotted for each product, as shown in the scatter diagrams in Figure 14.7(a) and Figure 14.7(b). We can check for correlation between the variables. If the scatter diagram slopes upward from left to right then we can say it is a positive correlation, if the plots have no pattern then there is no correlation and if the scatter diagram slopes downward from left to right we could state it a negative correlation.

A correlation coefficient that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship can be computed by applying a formula that takes into consideration the two sets of figures - in this case, different sales volumes at different prices. Theoretically, there could be a perfect positive correlation between two variables, which is represen- ted by 1.0 (plus 1), or a perfect negative correlation which would be −1.0 (minus 1). However, neither of these will be found in reality when assessing correlations between any two variables expected to be different from each other.

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3.4.4 Hypothesis testing

A hypothesis (also referred to as significance testing) is some testable belief or opinion, and hypothesis testing is the process by which the belief is tested by statistical means. The purpose of hypothesis testing is to determine accurately if the null hypothesis can be rejected in favour of the alternate hypothesis. Based on the sample data the researcher can reject the null hypothesis (and therefore accept the alternate hypothesis) with a certain degree of confidence: there is always a risk that the inference that is drawn about the population is incorrect.

A correlation coefficient that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship can be computed by applying a formula that takes into consideration the two sets of figures - in this case, different sales volumes at different prices. Theoretically, there could be a perfect positive correlation between two variables, which is represen- ted by 1.0 (plus 1), or a perfect negative correlation which would be −1.0 (minus 1). However, neither of these will be found in reality when assessing correlations between any two variables expected to be different from each other.

Results of hypothesis testing

There are 4 possible results:

• We accept a true hypothesis− a correct decision

• We reject a false hypothesis− a correct decision

• We reject a true hypothesis− an incorrect decision (known as a Type I error)

• We accept a false hypothesis− an incorrect decision (known as a Type II error)

• Tease out key themes from the data by applying a systematic analytical frame- work such as coding.

Significance levels

When a sample is taken to test some hypothesis it is likely that the information gleaned from the sample does not completely support the hypothesis. The differ- ence could be due to either the original hypothesis being wrong or the sample being slightly unrepresentative. It is important to test which of the two possibil- ities is more likely. The tests will show whether any differences can be attributed to ordinary random factors or not. If the difference is probably not due to chance factors the difference is said to be statistically significant. As we are dealing with samples and random factors, we cannot say with a 100% certainty that a difference is significant. Various levels of significance are chosen, most commonly 5% or 1%. Thus the result of a particular test might be expressed as:

‘the difference between the sample mean and the hypothetical population mean is significant at the 5% level’.

See sections 15.3 and 15.4 in the core text for t-tests. The one sample t-test is used to test the hypothesis that the mean of the population from which a sample is drawn is equal to a comparison standard. We can also do a (paired samples) t-test to examine the differences in the same group before and after a treatment. For example, would a group of employees perform better after undergoing training than they did before? In this case, there would be two observations for each employee, one before the training and one after the training. We would use a paired samples t-test to test the null hypothesis that the average of the differences between the before and after measure is zero. Note it is also possible to test the differences between the proportions of a given attribute found in two random samples.

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Topic summary

This topic introduced quantitative research methods. Essentially any data that is numerate can be analysed using quantitative techniques. Quantitative research methods can complement qualitative research methods and it is worth considering how you might combine both approaches in your project. The topic indicates that questionnaires are an appropriate tool for gathering data. Care must be taken in questionnaire design and it is best to pilot the questionnaire to resolve any issues before it goes ‘live’. Observation was also discussed as a method for collecting quantitative data. The topic indicates that the researcher has number of choices in how the organise and present the data. These choices can introduce bias and researchers need to be aware of how they might introduce bias in the design of their research instruments as well as the administration of the instruments and the presentation of the results. The data can be analysed using statistical concepts and it is possible to describe the data in terms of range, ‘average’ and standard deviation. Software such as Excel can carry much of the quantitative analysis and this enables the researcher to consider relationships between variables and carry out hypothesis testing.

If you feel ready to attempt the End of Unit Progress Test for Topic 3, follow this link.

References

© Burn, D.A. (1993) “Designing Effective Statistical Graphs”. In C. R. Rao, ed., Handbook of Stat- istics, Vol. 9, Chapter 22.

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Qualitative Research Methods

Learning outcomes

After completing the study of this topic you should be able to:

• understand the qualitative approach to business and management research;

• identify a range of qualitative research methods applicable to different management and business research topics;

• understand and apply key methods of qualitative data analysis.

The prescribed reading for this topic is from the core text: Sekaran and Bougie (2010) Research Methods for Business, Chapters 1, 7, 8, 9, 13 and 16.

Introduction

Qualitative methods are increasingly used and accepted in business and man- agement research. If a manager needs to know only what has happened, or how often something has occurred or how much has been produced, then quantitative approaches to research would suffice. Such approaches are particularly appropriate when we want to apply a measure− in other words to quantify. However, in order to understand meanings that people place on their experiences, a qualitative approach is often required. In very simple terms quantitative approaches tell us what things have happened, qualitative approaches tell us why things happen as they do. The choice between qualitative and quantitative research approaches depends on the area of investigation and the purpose of the research. Neither is better; indeed, some research projects incorporate both approaches, often called a mixed methods approach.

4.1 The process of qualitative research

The purpose of qualitative research is to gather data which provides an in-depth description of situations, events and interactions between people and things. Some- times, it is called interpretive research as it seeks to develop a thorough understand- ing of a phenomenon and requires the researcher to play a major role in interpreting the data which is generated. As a result, researchers become immersed in the sub- ject being investigated. A researcher chooses a qualitative methodology only after taking into account the following factors:

• The purpose and objectives of the research. This is the paramount considera- tion. Ask yourself: is a qualitative approach the best means to achieve the purpose and objectives of my MBA project?

• What are my skills? Do I have the necessary skill, personality and enthusiasm to conduct qualitative research?

The process of qualitative research invariably involves a much smaller sample size than quantitative research. While sample sizes will vary with the qualitative tech- nique employed, these are generally small. For example, a dental surgery may wish to carry out a patient satisfaction survey. If the surgery has 400 patients, a quantitat- ive approach may involve asking 100 of these patients to complete a questionnaire.

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A qualitative approach aimed at assessing patient satisfaction may only require one or two focus groups or 8-12 in-depth interviews.

Qualitative research involves non-probability sampling − that is, the researcher is not attempting to generate a representative sample. Three main types of non- probability sampling are common:

• Convenience sampling. As the name implies, convenience sampling refers to the collection of data from those who are conveniently able to provide it. For example, this could mean stopping people on a street corner as they pass by; it could also mean surveying friends, students, or colleagues that the researcher has regular access to. Convenience sampling is most often used in the explor- atory phase of a research project and enables a researcher to obtain some basic information quickly. It can be used in an MBA project but a student would need to justify the use of a convenience sample in preference to a purposive or snowball sample (see below).

• Purposive sampling. Instead of obtaining data form those who are most con- veniently available, a purposive sample, also commonly called a judgmental sample, is one that is selected based on the knowledge of a population and the purpose of the study. The subjects are selected because of some charac- teristic. Researchers who you might often see at a mall or in shopping centre carrying a clipboard and stopping various people to interview are often con- ducting research using purposive sampling. For example, they may wish to ask shoppers about their experiences of a particular shopping outlet. Another example would be a researcher wishing to establish the views of senior busi- ness executives about the importance of health and safety issues at places of employment. The researcher could attend a business conference in order to ask those attending for a short interview on this subject. In this instance, the researcher is attempting to focus on the target group. Purposive sampling can be very useful for situations such as an MBA project where a researcher needs to reach a targeted sample quickly and where a representative sample is not the main concern.

• Snowball sampling. This is a subset of a purposive sample. A snowball sample is achieved by asking a participant to suggest someone else who might be willing or appropriate for the study. Snowball samples are particularly useful in hard-to-track populations, such as truants, drug users, etc. It can also be used in business and management research and may be appropriate for some MBA projects. For example, an MBA project may be aimed at establishing the views of senior finance managers towards adopting a particular aspect of ICT technology. If the MBA researcher only knows a very few such senior managers, he/she could ask these senior finance managers for referrals to other interviewees. The snowball effect would occur as more and more referrals are acquired.

4.2 Data collection techniques This section focuses on the primary data collection technique for gathering data in qualitative research, namely the interview. The main types of interview are discussed including how the data collected can be applied to develop a case study approach to qualitative enquiry.

There are two key questions which the researcher must decide before embarking on an interview programme:

• First, should interviews be conducted on a one-to-one basis or a group basis?

• Second, to what extend should the interviews be structured?

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4.2.1 Individual versus group interviews

There is no absolute rule stating whether individual or group interviews are better. Your decision will be driven by the focus of your research; but you will also have to take a pragmatic view of the availability of possible interviewees. Participants for individual interviewees are usually selected for their knowledge and experience of the subject which is being researched. Where possible, such interviews should be face-to face. Such interviews are often recorded and subsequently transcribed in order to provide the interviewer with a rich detail of the subject being researched. However, permission for recording must be agreed with the interviewee and is usu- ally accompanied by an assurance that the transcript will remain confidential and the recording destroyed upon completion of the MBA project. There will, however, be those interviewees who are uncomfortable with recordings of their interview. This may be due to the sensitivity of the subject matter or the preferences of the individual being interviewed. In such cases the interviewer should make extensive notes during the interview− again, assurances of confidentially should be given. It should be noted that face-to face interviews may not be possible where the inter- viewees are widely scattered geographically. In such cases telephone interviews or video conferencing may provide viable alternatives. Telephone interviews do not provide the same level of interaction and thus the quality of rich detail obtained may suffer. It may be possible to address this issue, at least in part, by the use of techno- logy such as Skype. Overall, the MBA researcher must take a pragmatic approach to the format of individual interviews.

A group interview is an interview which involves more than one interviewee. The number of interviews at a group interview can vary from two (sometimes referred to as a dyad) to four or five. When the number of individuals exceeds this number, the researcher is, in essence, conducting a focus group (see below). In general, the smaller the number of interviewees, the more in-depth a group interview can be. In larger group interviews, a greater range of ideas and views can be covered. In terms of composition, groups can be homogeneous, that is comprised of similar individuals who share the same or similar backgrounds and experiences. Groups can also be heterogeneous, that is, comprised of individuals who have different backgrounds and experiences. For an MBA project with a focused research topic it is likely that group interviews will comprise of individuals who are homogeneous. Larger group interviewing, for example of more than 6 individuals, usually takes the form of a focus group. Those being interviewed are usually chosen on the basis of their expertise and/or experience of the topic on which information is sought, thus focus group members are likely to be described as homogeneous. For example, human resource managers may be brought together in order to discuss the key factors in the recruitment of specialist ICT staff. Focus groups are used extensively in market research and, with use of technology, their use is being extended with ever-greater use being made of online focus groups. Whatever the precise form that a focus group takes, a skilled moderator is required if this method is to successfully address a research topic. Moderation skills require specific training and experience. Thus, unless you have existing experience of running focus groups, this technique is not generally recommended for an MBA project. Your supervisor will advise on this.

4.2.2 How many interviews?

MBA students carrying out qualitative research frequently ask ‘how many inter- views is enough?’ While there are other factors that affect sample size in qualitative studies, researchers generally use saturation as a guiding principle during their data collection. Data saturation occurs when the researcher is no longer obtaining new information from the interview process. Unlike quantitative researchers who wait until the end of the study to analyse their data, qualitative researchers usually

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analyse their data throughout their study. Generally, for an MBA project in-depth interviews involving 6−8 individuals would be expected.

4.2.3 Conducting a research interview

There are three main types of research interview − unstructured, semi-structure and structured. Each approach can be applied to individual and group interviews. An unstructured interview is so described as the interviewer does not enter the interview with a planned set of questions. This approach is only recommended for an expert researcher who has gained experience in applying this approach. With a structured interview, the interviewer has a set of pre-determined questions to be asked. This approach makes it difficult to obtain rich data which is usu- ally the rationale for adopting a qualitative approach. Hence, most MBA projects which adopt a qualitative approach will utilise a semi-structured interview. With this approach, the interviewer develops and uses an interview guide, sometimes called an interview protocol. This is a list of questions and topics that need to be covered during the conversation, usually in a particular order. The researcher follows the guide, but during the interview, she/he follows-up interesting points made by the interviewee. An effective semi-structured interview is one in which the researcher probes for and obtains additional data and insights from the interviewee.

The development of the questions for a semi-structured interview programme takes into consideration:

• the focus of your research;

• what has been learned from the literature review, for example, this should have established the key issues pertinent to your research question; and

• what you want to learn from the people to be interviewed.

It is important, however, to recognize that the interviewer must be a good listener, and that the best probing is that which is responsive to what the interviewee is saying. Silence (on the part of the interviewer) is golden and can give the interviewee time to think and speak. If you intend using a semi-structured interviews, you must develop an interview guide or protocol in advance. An example of an interview protocol is shown below. This protocol was developed and used by an experienced qualitative researcher who conducted a series of individual face-to-face interviews with experienced business angel investors. Two key points can be seen in this protocol. Note how:

• this researcher’s protocol recognised that an interview typically passes through a number of stages or phases − starting with an introductory phase and con- cluding with a wrap-up in which thanks are extended to the interviewee;

• the protocol includes reminders to the researcher about what to ask the Busi- ness Angels. For example, in phase 4 the researcher prompts himself/herself to ask a key question of each interviewee.

Example− Interview Protocol: Interviews with Business Angel Investors

Objective − to address the research question: what are the decision criteria against which investment opportunities are assessed?

Note this example followed several phases and each phase required different actions by the interviewer.

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Phase 1

a. Introductions and explanation of research − expand on previous email correspondence with the business angel in which the research project was explained− provide additional background information as required.

b. Underline that anonymity of interviewees will be maintained.

c. Ask if the interview can be recorded.

Phase 2

a. Ask interviewees about their business background.

b. Ask about how and why they became a business angel.

Phase 3

a. Use the angel investment process to provide structure and to get the busi- ness angel talking.

b. Identification of investment opportunity − How did you learn about it? From whom did you learn about it? What attracted you to the opportunity?

c. Initial assessment of opportunity− criteria? Assessment of entrepreneur(s) behind the opportunity− criteria?

d. Committing to the opportunity−criteria? Finance, marketing, team behind the opportunity.

e. Managing the investment− how?

f. Throughout the interview, bring interviewee back to reasons for the invest- ment. Focus on specific reasons− try to avoid generalities, where possible.

Phase 4

a. Attempt to get interviewees to talk about critical incidents. Ask: what do you know now that you wish you had known when you started out as a business angel?

b. Follow-up and develop interviewee’s responses.

Phase 5

a. Wrap-up. Ask interviewee if any significant factors have been missed in relation to learning to be successful as a producer.

b. Thank interviewee and ask if you could, if necessary, contact then again to clarify any points.

c. Emphasise again the anonymity of interviewees.

Tips

The good interviewer

a. Always chooses a setting with the least distraction and in which the interview will feel comfortable.

b. Indicates how long the interview will last.

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c. Occasionally verifies that the recorder is working, (worth doing before the inter- view as well!).

d. Asks one question at a time.

e. Attempts to remain neutral by keeping her/his opinions and views to her- self/himself.

f. Reviews notes and recordings as soon as is practicable.

Reflective exercise 4.1

Take a few minutes to sketch out a first draft of an interview guide for use in your MBA project. Begin by thinking about the topic of your research. Then envision yourself conducting a one-to-one interview. What phases would the interview go through?

Note: Experienced researchers find that preparing an interview guide takes several iterations. Therefore, keep your first attempt at preparing an interview guide. This may well be the draft you refine several times to arrive at your final interview guide.

4.2.4 The case study approach

One powerful research approach that is sometimes adopted for an MBA project is that of case study. Case studies focus on gathering data about a specific object, event or activity. In the context of an MBA project this may mean focusing on a particular organization or business unit; sometimes, the focus is on two organisations in order to allow the project to contrast and compare business practices. In essence it is about going deep in order to better understand a real-life situation. The researcher does this by examining the real-life situation form various angles and perspectives using multiple methods of data collection. For example, the researcher may wish to focus on the effectiveness of the recruitment and selection process in a particular organ- ization− perhaps in the organisation in which she/he is employed. The researcher could extract quantitative data from the organization’s records about this area, for example retention rates among staff. In-depth interviews would then be conducted with those who manage the recruitment process as well as with a selection of recent recruits. In this way, the researcher gains and in-depth understanding of the issues in a particular organization. This approach could be replicated in another organ- isation in order to enable the researcher to contrast and compare the respective organisations. The results of study could be compared to best practice (established by the literature review) and recommendations made to how the recruitment and selection process could be improved.

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Reflective exercise 4.2

Imagine that you wish to use interviews to gather the data for your MBA pro- ject which focused on HR recruitment practices. In designing the project you are trying to decide on two approaches. The first is a case study approach where you will interview a number of HR professionals from within your own organisation. The second approach would be to interview the Head of Recruit- ment from your own organisation and a number of similar HR professionals from organisations in a field of activity similar to your own organisation. The first option entails interviewing internal subjects; the second approach entails interviewing mainly external subjects.

Consider the advantages and disadvantages of interviewing internal and external subjects. Write down these down.

4.3 Qualitative data analysis

There are many different ways to analyse qualitative data. Usually, what the researcher is trying to do is to identify, analyse and report patterns or themes in the data. For an MBA project, the qualitative data is usually in the form of interview transcripts. Interviews produce many pages of transcripts. This data requires critical examin- ation and careful interpretation. Rigorous qualitative analysis discovers patterns, coherent themes, meaning¬ful categories, and new ideas. The analysis of the data should occur throughout the course of a project. Do not wait until all the interviews are concluded before beginning the analysis process. Begin the analysis of inter- views as soon as is reasonably practicable. Remember, the objective of qualitative analysis is to find the ‘meaning’ embedded within the data.

The cornerstone of qualitative analysis is the coding of the interview transcripts. Coding requires the researcher to transcribe the interviews and then to read the transcripts several times to pin-point the themes which have emerged. For example, what did the interviewees say that was surprising? What was said that was common to all or a number of the interviewees? At a basic level, coding is simply any way of categorising and sorting data for the purposes of analysis. In qualitative research coding can be done at the end of the interview programme or as each interview is completed. In an MBA project it is recommended that you analyse each interview as soon as possible.

The first stage of the coding process is a ‘trawl’ through the interview transcripts to see what is there − what patterns are emerging from the data? As you read the transcripts note down the thoughts and ideas that occur to you as you read the data − it is advisable to write these down as you read. One tip is to format your interview transcripts with a wide margin that gives you the space in which to write. From this reading or ‘sort’ of the data you will have developed an initial coding scheme. The second stage of the coding process is to re-read your data in order to refine, expand or reject initial categories. Once you have identified the significant elements in your data these need to be ‘tagged’ or coded. A code is essentially a way of identifying

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significant parts of the data, so it can be in any form of letters or numbers that make sense to you.

Qualitative research: Coding exercise

Source: University of Plymouth− an open educational resource

This exercise requires you read through this verbatim interview transcript between an experienced researcher and an interviewee. The subject matter was about under- taking sporting activity as a means of keeping fit.

Interview transcript

Male, age 35

Q: Can you tell me how you became interested in sport?

A: Well I don’t think there was any one reason− it was always there, my parents encouraged me to be active and then we did sport and PE and stuff like that at school, so no one reason, like many young lads I dreamed of being a footballer.

Q: What sport or sports do you take part in?

A: I still play football but not much, I can’t keep up with the younger lads anymore! Sounds daft as I don’t think of myself as being old but the eighteen, nineteen year olds just run faster than me, even though I go jogging every day.

Q: Do you think you need to do that to keep fit?

A: Oh yeah, I hurt my knee a while back, got a knock in a match and couldn’t do much for a couple of months, I started putting on weight just sitting around, all the blokes in our family are a bit big and working in an office means I don’t get any exercise at work so yeah, I need to do it.

Q: Football and jogging are very different, one’s a team game and the other you do on your own, or do you go jogging with anyone else?

A: When I was playing regularly I was jogging anyway, you need to do that to keep your stamina up but yeah, playing football is all about the team, it’s like no one’s bigger that the team−well in theory (laughs)− so it’s a lot about having mates and you’re all in it together as much as actually kicking the ball around. Sometimes we would train together − well that sounds a bit serious but it was like that, so we would go jogging together once a week or sometimes more. But then people move on, they change jobs or whatever and stop coming along. Sorry, what was the question again?

Q: When you go out jogging now, do you go on your own?

A: Oh right, yes. The missus came out with me a few times but she couldn’t keep up, she goes to the gym now with her friends. So I go out on my own.

Q: How many times a week?

A: I try and go every day, once you get into it you notice the difference when you don’t.

Q: Even when it’s raining?

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A: Mostly, but not if it’s pelting down, playing footie you get used to that, it just comes with the territory, I’ve played footie in the pouring rain, you see I think if you’re going to do it you can’t get all picky and stop going because it’s cold or dark, no point in that, so unless it’s really tipping it down I’ll go out.

Q: How far do you jog?

A: Half an hour or so, I go round the estate on the quiet roads.

Q: Just before, you mentioned the social side of sport, with the football team, can you tell me a bit more about that?

A: That goes way back to school, I was picked for the first team a couple of times and for a while thought I was going to be pulling on an England shirt but (laughs) I guess every other kid in the team was thinking that! But yeah, it was part of something, even when I was in the second team and tagged along I still had the feeling that I belonged. Then when I went to sixth form college I joined a team there and that was great, we had a lot of laughs, some good nights in the pub after a match, stuff like that, and then I used to go and watch Aldershot when they played at home, with them being my local team.

Q: So this idea of belonging still important to you?

A: Well not so much now, I mean when I was a kid all the lads supported teams and some went for the big ones like Man United or Arsenal, but to me and some of the lads it was Aldershot as they were our local team, they were like ours, right? But that’s all about having a good time with your mates really.

Q: Do you still follow them?

A: Yeah, well I went last Easter when I was down there visiting the parents, some of the old crowd are still there and I met up with them, it was a laugh, if they came up this way for a cup match I’d probably go.

Q: Have you ever played other sports?

A: Yeah well in school we did some, but to me it was always football, I never liked cricket, rugby’s Ok, I watch that if it’s on the box.

Q: Do you watch much sport on the box then?

A: Match of the day, most matches that are on, world cup of course, rugby, maybe some athletics, I like the Olympics but that’s it, I’m not that much of a sports nut.

Q: Does your wife watch it as well?

A: (laughs) No, well sometimes if she can’t be bothered moving of the sofa, she’d rather watch East Enders and girly stuff like that, but we’ve got two tellies in the house so we can both watch different things if we want, and we have broadband as well but the kids are on that all the time.

Q: I know what you mean, we do that in our house as well. Now you said your wife goes to the gym, have you ever thought of that?

A: Yeah, yeah, tried it a couple of times but I didn’t like it.

Q: You didn’t like it, why was that?

A: Well, you go in, and there’s all this music, and people on machines wearing all these fancy clothes and they’re like jogging on these machines but they aren’t

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going nowhere, well I just didn’t like it, I mean why pay money to jog nowhere, when you can jog somewhere for nothing? Even if it’s just round the estate.

Q: Well I suppose it doesn’t rain in a gym.

A: Now you’re sounding like my missus! But I don’t really care about that, I just didn’t like it, tried it and fair enough for them that like it but it’s not for me. Do you go to a gym?

Q: Me? No, to be honest it doesn’t appeal to me either.

A: Well there you go, it was just like that for me, I didn’t like it.

After reading the interview once, print a paper copy. Read it again marking directly onto the paper copy any key points or themes which emerge from the transcript as you read. What you are doing is coding!

4

Once you have tried coding this interview, look at the way an experienced researcher has done this.

Qualitative research: Coding exercise− an initial descriptive coding

This is what initial coding may look like. The initial codes are shown in in red pen, and then the researcher has added some notes as reminders to herslf in a different colour. These personal notes are kept distinct from the initail codes by using a different colour ink− in this case black.

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Codes are often developed in terms of main categories and subsidiary ones. So in the example above we would have:

Main code: Types of sport

Subsidiary codes: Football, Jogging

If we were to read through more transcripts of the interviews, we may probably add to those so we could end up with something that looked like this:

Types of sport:

Football

Jogging

Rugby

Badminton

Cricket

Now one way of assigning codes could be this:

Main code A Types of sport

Subsidiary codes

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A1 Football

A2 Jogging

A3 Rugby

A4 Badminton

A5 Cricket

Exactly how one develops a coding scheme varies from researcher to researcher. What is important is to use and develop a system that works for you and that you would be prepared to explain to your supervisor. What your supervisor is looking for is that you have approached the task of data analysis with rigour and thoroughness. Always remember that the process of coding is simply a way of sorting your data for analysis, it is not the analysis itself.

Coding is not always a continuous process in which you go from document 1 to 2 to 3 until you reach the end. It is not uncommon to be reading a transcript and then remember one you had read a while ago, so quite often you will find yourself dipping in and out of your transcripts, adding new ideas and new codes, the important point is that you subject all your material to a close reading.

Some people argue that you need to approach the data without preconceptions and allow the themes to emerge from the data. This is not possible if the data you are using has been gathered by you. If you have been interviewing people then you cannot help but begin thinking about it from the moment you hear it. This is not a problem but you need to be aware of it.

Themes do not emerge by themselves, you have to pull them out!

Finally, you will recall that we addressed the question about how many qualitative interviews should be conducted. In similar vein, a question often asked by MBA students is ‘how many main codes should emerge from a research interview?’ This is a difficult question on which to give specific guidance. It will depend on both the subject matter of the interview and the ability of the researcher to keep the interviewee focused on key issues. As a general guideline, an experienced researcher would expect 3−6 main codes to emerge. These would then be consolidated into a similar number of themes by comparing the findings from all the interviews.

Reflective exercise 4.3

What are the advantages and disadvantages on face-to-face and telephone interviews?

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What do you judge would be your biggest challenge in conducting research interviews?

What would be the challenge in gaining cooperation from interviewees?

What would be the challenges of your own interviewing skills?

Topic summary

Rigorous qualitative research is challenging. Experienced researchers in this area:

1. Acknowledge that it is usually difficult to obtain a representative sample and, hence, generalise research results.

2. Know the advantages and disadvantages of the main types of interview− indi- vidual, group, internal and external.

3. Recognise that the number of interviews in a qualitative research study is seldom pre-determined; rather, interviewing ceases when data saturation is reached.

4. Know that rigorous interviews are facilitated by a well-developed interview guide/protocol.

5. Tease out key themes from the data by applying a systematic analytical frame- work such as coding.

If you feel ready to attempt the End of Unit Progress Test for Topic 4, follow this link.

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Writing Up Your MBA Project Report

Learning outcomes

After completing the study of this topic you should be able to tailor your MBA project report to meet the UWS requirements.

The prescribed reading for this topic is from the core text: Sekaran and Bougie (2010) Research Methods for Business, Chapter 17.

5.1 The written report

A well-written MBA project report should be clear, concise, and coherent, with a good organisation of paragraphs and with a smooth transition between topics. Grammar and spelling mistakes need to be avoided and facts or reflective thoughts instead of simple opinions should be provided. Heading and subheadings should help the researcher to organise the report in a logical manner and allow the reader to follow the ‘story’. You are not writing an essay − essentially what we expect is a management report with references. There are a number of ways of writing up your project and the outline which follows is the one we recommend. We do not wish to stifle originality but this format has worked well for MBA students at UWS for many years. Your supervisor will guide you on the appropriate structure for your project, which often depends on your subject discipline, and which may vary a little from this format. However, please note that each project should contain, in one format or another, each of the following chapters: introduction, literature, methodology, results, analysis and conclusion. In addition your project should begin with an abstract (see below). Your project should be between 10,000 and 15,000 words and the word limits below are given as a guide. However, try to keep to them. If your project is too long, then it may well be unfocused. If it is too short, then you may not have covered all the ground.

5.2 How to structure your MBA project report

This section presents the different parts of the report including the importance of an executive summary, a clear table of contents, concise introductory chapter, the different parts of the body of the report, and the final part of the report.

Abstract−Maximum 300 words

The abstract should be a brief account of the entire research study. You will become familiar with the term from reading academic journal articles. While abstracts can vary greatly in what they contain, in an MBA project we would typically expect you to provide one (possibly two) well-developed paragraph that is coherent and concise, and is able to stand alone as a unit of information. It covers all the essential elements of the MBA project and provides the reader with your project in a ‘nutshell’. Please note that that an abstract usually does not include any references. The abstract is important as it will be the first impression you will give to the examiners of your project. It is recommended that the abstract is written at the end of your project by which time you will have a clearer picture of all your findings and conclusions.

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Table of Contents

The Table of Contents will offer to the reader an understanding of the logical struc- ture of the report. The reader will be able to identify the main heading and sub- heading and consequently the main topics of the report/dissertation. The example given in your core text is shown below and contains useful advice.

Example

TiasNimbas Business School guidelines for the table of contents

The table of contents contains the headings and subheadings of the chapters and sections of your research project, with the numbers of the pages on which these chapters and sections begin. The outer cover page and management summary are not entered in the table of contents and therefore the first item to be listed is the preface.

The minimum content of the table of contents should be the preface, each chapter or main division title, each appendix and the bibliography. All head- ings should correspond exactly in wording, arrangement, punctuation, and capitalisation with the headings as they appear in the body of the dissertation.

A main heading or chapter title is given entirely in capitals and begins at the left-hand margin of the page. Main subheadings should be indented and typed in upper and lower case. Subordinate subheadings should also be inden- ted. Chapters, sections of chapters, and subsections, etc., are numbered using Arabic numerals in a decimal sequence. Thus the third subsection of the second section of chapter three is numbered 3.2.3.

The number of the page on which the division begins in the text of the man- agement project is given in the table of contents in Arabic numerals flush with the right-hand margin of the page. Double-spacing is used except for overrun lines, which are single-spaced.

Introduction− about 750−1,200 words This chapter sets the scene and introduces the reader to your project. You should therefore give a clear account of the research problem that you set out to invest- igate, introduce your model/framework and make sure that you have covered the relevant theoretical and empirical issues involved. If you have added to, eliminated or substituted research aims and objectives during the course of your work, outline succinctly both the changes and the problem you have finally tackled. The core text suggests the following structure for the introduction chapter of a research report which you may find useful for your MBA project

The introductory section

The layout of the first chapter is more or less standard. This chapter could contain, in the following order:

1. Introduction (§1.1).

2. Reason for the research (problem indication) and the purpose of the research (§1.2).

3. Problem statement and research questions (§1.3).

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4. The scope of the study (§1.4).

5. Research method (approach) (§1.5).

6. Managerial relevance (§1.6).

7. Structure and division of chapters in the research report (§1.7).

The introductory section starts with a short introduction providing background information on why and how the study was initiated. The introduction is fol- lowed by a section describing the reason for and the purpose of the research project, and a section providing the statement of the problem under invest- igation. Brief (!) descriptions of the scope of the study, the research method, and the managerial relevance of the study are also provided in the introduct- ory section. The last section offers an overview of the structure and division of chapters in the research report.

You will see from the above that the last section of your introduction should set out the overall structure of your project. Here is an example of how one MBA student wrote this short section − the project focused on customer satisfaction in the manufacturing of fast-moving consumer goods.

This strategic project is set out in the following way. This introduction is followed by a literature review chapter which appraises the main theoretical models and existing literature in the area of customer satisfaction in the manufacturing of fast-moving consumer goods. A description of the quantitative methodology employed to conduct the empirical research on customer satisfaction levels is then set out. Results of the research are then reported followed by a chapter discussing the key findings in relation to the existing literature. The project concludes by setting out a series of recommendations for the company to consider in developing its future customer satisfaction strategy.

Literature Review− between 2,500−4,000 words Your literature review should be selective, but structured in such a way as to demon- strate your familiarity with the general field in which your question lies. It is often important to identify and discuss gaps in the current literature. Most literature reviews will contain the elements set out below. Check that you have included these (where appropriate), but please note that this list is a checklist, not a format for the structure of the chapter:

a. an introduction to the literature review;

b. a discussion of the theoretical perspectives which previous writers have used for investigations in your chosen field;

c. a summary of the main empirical findings of previous research, together with data from other sources, stressing those ideas and empirical findings which are important to your work and including those which you challenge and reject as well as those that you have used for your own study;

d. a justification of your choice of any model/framework that you propose to use in your research;

e. a conclusion, which summarises the building blocks you have selected as a basis for your own work, and which leads the reader into the following chapters.

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TipDo not overuse direct quotes from articles and books in this chapter − in this way any direct quotes that you do use can have an impact.

Methodology− between 1,750−2,500 words

This chapter sets out the research strategy and methods you have used in your MBA project. The examiner will expect you to show the reliability and validity of your choices. The chapter should include:

a. An introduction.

b. A brief outline of the research approach you selected and the reasons for your choice; for example, justify why you selected a quantitative or qualitative approach, or a combination of both.

c. A detailed account of how the data was collected. For example, was it by inter- views/questionnaires? How many interviews? How many questionnaires dis- tributed/returned?

d. How the data collection was analysed.

e. A discussion of any problems or difficulties you encountered or any changes you made during the course of your research.

f. Limitations of your methodological approach− every method has its strengths and weaknesses. summarises the building blocks you have selected as a basis for your own work, and which leads the reader into the following chapters.

g. Any ethical considerations.

Note: This chapter of an MBA project would normally contain references on research methods, particularly in relation to the choice of research approach and the methods used to collect and analyse the data. Such references would usually cite key books on research methods that you have consulted during your MBA project. As a rule, a good MBA project would cite about 3−6 sources.

Results− between 2,750−4,250 words

In this chapter you show the reader the information you have discovered as a result of your research. However, at this stage you are setting out the data you have discovered, not analysing it. That is for the next chapter.

You should give careful consideration as to how you will present your findings. You will have a range and volume of data, which you need to summarise and present and you may use a variety of methods, including tables, charts, diagrams, verbatim quotes etc. You will also need to contextualise the data and point out any weaknesses/ omissions in your material. Also, remember that this chapter also needs a short introduction and conclusion.

Note: you would usually cite any references in this chapter of your project − your focus is on presenting your results.

TipIf you have used interview questions, remember to include some actual quota- tions that support the points you are making.

TipImagine that your MBA project is about how to develop an effective recruitment strategy. If, for example, your literature review has led you to suggest that there appear to be, say, 6 key factors to consider when developing a recruitment strategy, you may wish to consider using these 6 factors things as sub-headings as a frame- work for presenting your findings. If there are additional factors that you have found

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in your research these should also be noted here, as these lead on to your Analysis and Conclusions chapter.

Analysis and Conclusions− between 2,750−4,250 words Your analysis and conclusions chapter should normally be at least as long as your results chapter and is the chapter in which you analyse and discuss your findings. Its purpose is to address your research aims. You should consider what you have been able to establish in your research, giving attention to replications and refutations of previous writers’ findings, as well as showing new or innovative data. You should also relate your results back to what you found in the literature in this area. Therefore, one would normally find some the literature being cited for a second time in this chapter of your project. If there are practical implications for your research then you need to decide whether or not you wish to make specific recommendations, or just draw out the general implications of your work. You should be explicit about the types of context/situation for which your conclusions are relevant, and the limits beyond which they do not or may not apply. A good way to finish is to outline ‘suggested areas for further research’. This is good academic practice in that it demonstrates that your investigations have opened up further interesting avenues.

Please note that on occasions this chapter is split into two: analysis and conclusions.

TipTo follow on from the last tip given on the results chapter, you should highlight in this chapter what can be added to existing theory or our general academic know- ledge in the light of your investigation. For example, the literature might suggest 6 key factors, but your investigations may have led you to suggest a few more or that only four mattered.

References

Full details of any references cited in your project should be set out in a reference list. There is no need to set a bibliography of any texts or articles not referenced in your project.

Appendices

Appendices are placed at the end of your project after your References and do not count towards the overall word count of your MBA project. This is where to put material that is not crucial to your project but which provides support for, or background to, your research. This is a way of getting bulk material out of the main body but it is not a dumping ground.

Good examples of what might appear in your Appendices might be:

• a summary of a recent industry report

• blank copies of any questionnaires/interview schedules

• an extract form an interview transcript

• survey data

• company policy documents that relate to your investigation.

Bad examples include:

• photocopies of journal articles/book chapters

• copies of theoretical models/frameworks/diagrams− if you think that these are important to your theoretical background incorporate them into your literature review.

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TipBig does not mean better. Expecting an examiner to search through pages of data is unprofessional.

Finally, experience of supervising MBA students over a number of years suggests 7 key writing tips which will help you approach the MBA project professionally.

1. Good writers continually revise and rewrite until they are satisfied with the final result. Don’t underestimate how long this can take.

2. Always keep in mind your original research aims and research questions and remind the reader of these at regular intervals.

3. Start writing early. Do not try writing the report all at once. Give yourself plenty of time for revision, correcting and for formatting the document − this can be very time-consuming. Discuss and agree with your supervisor arrangements for sending and returning completed text to each other.

4. ‘Write with your ear’. A sentence may look correct on paper, but often sounds jumbled or rambling if read aloud. Listen to your sentences in your head as you write.

5. ‘Write for the eye’. Make your project report visually appealing, (see the guidelines on line spacing and type font in your MBA project handbook).

6. Make your writing clear and simple. Avoid long, convoluted sentences. Don’t use twenty words, if ten will do. Be ruthless by editing out redundant words and sentences.

7. If you are concerned about your spelling and grammar, have your chapters proof read before you hand them to your supervisor. A good proof reader will point out any spelling or grammatical errors− but leave you to decide whether to make the corrections or not. Do not expect your supervisor to act as a proof reader.

Reflective exercise 5.1

Critique Report 3 in the Appendix of Chapter 17 . Discuss it in terms of good and bad research, suggesting how the study could have been improved, what aspects of it are good, and how scientific it is.

Topic summary Three key points should always be kept in mind:

1. We expect you MBA project to be between 10−15,000 words. Make every one count.

2. Keep to the structure suggested − only depart from it with the agreement of your supervisor.

3. Follow the writing advice given in this chapter− it has worked for other students and, therefore, is likely to work for you.

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See Appendix 5.1 for the MBA marking scheme, this should provide an overview of the structure for your project as well as the questions you need to ask as you draft each section.

If you feel ready to attempt the End of Unit Progress Test for Topic 5, follow this link.

5.3 Appendix 5.1

In assessing a dissertation examiners are asked to consider the following questions:

I. Introduction

i. Does the introduction set out the overall aim and reasons for the study?

ii. Are objectives clearly stated? Are they relevant?

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iii. Are organisational considerations given? Do they add to the reasons for the study? Are other pertinent issues discussed?

iv. Can an understanding of the methods and approach be gleaned?

v. Is a structure given for the document?

II. Literature review

i. Does it inform the hypotheses to be investigated?

ii. Is it balanced, reflective of major developments and cognisant of major trends in relevant disciplines?

iii. Is the literature review critical? Is the candidate evaluative?

iv. Does this review suggest research approaches, strategies and data-collection methods?

III. Methods

i. Are the methodology and data-collection methods appropriate?

ii. Is there a link to the literature review and the theory and approaches dis- cussed there?

iii. Has selection of them been well argued?

iv. Does the candidate demonstrate capacity for application and accurate, appropriate use of techniques?

IV. Results and discussion

i. Are these parts of the dissertation appropriately structured or separated?

ii. Is a distinction maintained between what was discovered and the judge- ments made on the basis of discoveries?

iii. Are findings presented clearly and cogently? You might consider whether there is a relationship between objectives and/or themes and order of presentation of findings.

iv. Is the presentation of results analytical? Is there clarification of relationships between data items and their component parts?

v. Does the candidate demonstrate a capacity for synthesis of results, theory and the work of others when discussing the findings?

V. Conclusions

i. Is there awareness of the limitations of the research?

ii. Are conclusions and recommendations valid? That is, have they been reached logically? Does the evidence support them?

iii. Are organisational implications treated appropriately? Have additions to the literature been made and recognised by the candidate? What are the implications for the current state of knowledge and practice?

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VI. Continuity and presentation

i. Does the document build on an Introduction and Abstract to provide a coherent story that can be followed from chapter to chapter?

ii. Is the document appropriately structured? Does it conform with the Guidelines on the MBAOW site?

iii. Do you have an overall sense that the student has considered a flow of activity involving the broad questions:

What is the question? What is its answer? What evidence led to the answer?

iv. Are there linkages between sections and/or chapters?

v. Where appropriate, is there an Executive Summary?

vi. Are the conclusions germane? Are the ideas in the introduction and conclu- sion appropriately linked?

vii. Is the dissertation documented and referenced in a consistent, academic manner? Is the text free of spelling, punctuation and grammatical errors?

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