psychology

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Copyright © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner.  This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.

ESSENTIALS OF LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT, 5e
JOHN W. SANTROCK

SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY

4

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Chapter Outline

• Emotional and personality development
• Social orientation and attachment
• Social contexts

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Emotional and Personality Development

• Emotions: Feeling, or affect, that occurs when a person is in a state or interaction that is important to him or her
• Play important roles in:
• Communication with others
• Behavioral organization
• Range of positive and negative emotions

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Emotional and Personality Development

• Biological and environmental influences
• Facial expressions of basic emotions same across cultures
• Emotion-linked interchange provides foundation for the infant’s developing attachment to the parent
• Social relationships
• Provide the setting for the development of a rich variety of emotions
• Display rules are not universal
• Govern when, where, and how emotions should be expressed

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Figure 4.1 - Expression of Different Emotions in Infants

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Emotional and Personality Development

• Early emotions
• Emotions expressed during first 6 months of life
• Surprise, interest, joy, anger, sadness, fear, disgust
• Self-conscious emotions develop later in infancy
• Jealousy, empathy, embarrassment, pride, shame, guilt
• Emotional expressions and relationships
• Infants’ emotional communications permit coordinated interactions with caregivers
• Beginnings of emotional bonds

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Emotional and Personality Development

• Crying
• Basic cry: Rhythmic pattern usually consisting of:
• A cry
• Briefer silence
• Shorter inspiratory whistle that is higher pitched than the main cry
• Brief rest before the next cry
• Anger cry: Variation of the basic cry, with more excess air forced through the vocal cords
• Pain cry: Sudden long, initial loud cry followed by breath holding

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Emotional and Personality Development

• Smiling
• Reflexive smile: Smile that does not occur in response to external stimuli
• Social smile: Smile in response to an external stimulus
• Fear
• Stranger anxiety: Fear and wariness of strangers
• Separation protest: Distressed crying when the caregiver leaves
• Social referencing
• “Reading” emotional cues in others to help determine how to act in a particular situation
• Helps infants interpret ambiguous situations more accurately

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Emotional and Personality Development

• Emotion regulation and coping
• Infants gradually develop an ability to inhibit, or minimize, the intensity and duration of emotional reactions
• Caregivers’ actions and contexts can influence emotional regulation
• Soothing modulates emotions, reduces level of stress hormones
• Later, infants redirect or distract themselves to reduce arousal levels

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Emotional and Personality Development

• Temperament: Individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions, and characteristic ways of responding
• How quickly emotion is shown, how strong it is, how long it lasts, how quickly it fades away
• Emotional reactivity and self-regulation
• Speed and intensity, positive or negative emotions
• Extent or effectiveness of an individual’s control over emotions

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Emotional and Personality Development

• Chess and Thomas’ classifications
• Easy child
• Generally in a positive mood
• Quickly establishes regular routines in infancy
• Adapts easily to new experiences
• Difficult child
• Reacts negatively and cries frequently
• Engages in irregular daily routines
• Slow to accept change
• Slow-to-warm-up child
• Low activity level
• Somewhat negative
• Displays a low intensity of mood

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Emotional and Personality Development

• Kagan’s Behavioral Inhibition
• Inhibition to the unfamiliar – shyness with strangers (peers or adults)
• Rothbart & Bates’ Classification
• Effortful control (Self-Regulation)
• Bates & Pettit
• Development of temperament such as effortful control allows individual differences to emerge

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Emotional and Personality Development

• Biological foundations and experience
• Physiological influences
• Gender and cultural influences
• Parents may react differently to an infant’s temperament depending on gender
• Cultural differences in temperament were linked to parental attitude and behaviors
• Goodness of fit: Match between a child’s temperament and the environmental demands the child must cope with
• Lack of fit may produce adjustment problems

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Emotional and Personality Development

• Trust
• Erikson’s trust vs mistrust stage
• Developing sense of self
• Self-recognition
• Self-awareness – emerging sense of “me”
• Independence
• Erikson’s autonomy versus shame and doubt stage

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Social Orientation and Attachment

• Social orientation
• Face-to-face play
• Increasing levels of interaction with peers
• Locomotion
• As infants develop ability to crawl, walk, and run, they are able to explore and expand their social world
• Intention, goal-directed behavior, and cooperation
• Joint attention
• Gaze-following

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Social Orientation and Attachment

• Attachment: Close emotional bond between two people
• Freud - Infants become attached to the person that provides oral satisfaction
• Harlow - Contact comfort preferred over food
• Erikson - Trust arises from physical comfort and sensitive care
• Bowlby - Four phases of attachment
• Phase 1: From birth to 2 months - Attachment to human figures
• Phase 2: From 2 to 7 months - Focus on one figure
• Phase 3: From 7 to 24 months - Specific attachments develop
• Phase 4: From 24 months on - Become aware of others’ feelings

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Social Orientation and Attachment

• Strange Situation
• Observational measure of infant attachment
• Infant move through a series of:
• Introductions
• Separations
• Reunions with the caregiver and an adult stranger in a prescribed order
• Provides information about infant’s motivation to be near caregiver and degree to which caregiver’s presence provides security and confidence

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Social Orientation and Attachment

• Attachment styles:
• Securely attached babies: Use the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore the environment
• Insecure avoidant babies: Avoid the caregiver
• Insecure resistant babies: Cling to the caregiver, then resist the caregiver by fighting against the closeness
• Insecure disorganized babies: Appear dazed, confused, and fearful

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Social Orientation and Attachment

• Developmental cascade model
• Connections across domains over time that influence developmental pathways and outcomes
• Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes
• Involve social contexts like families, peers, schools, culture
• Can produce positive or negative outcomes at different points of development

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Social Orientation and Attachment

• Caregiving styles and attachment
• Caregiver sensitivity linked to secure attachment
• Caregivers of insecurely attached infants (avoidant, resistant, and disorganized) tend to be rejecting, inconsistent, or abusive

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Social Contexts

• The family
• Constellation of subsystems defined by generation, gender, and role
• Subsystems have reciprocal influences on each other
• Transition to parenthood
• New parents face disequilibrium and must adapt to it
• Developing strong attachment to infant, maintaining connections with partner and friends, careers

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Figure 4.6 – Interaction Between Children and Their Parents: Direct and Indirect Effects

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Social Contexts

• Reciprocal socialization
• Bidirectional – children socialize parents, just as parents socialize children
• Scaffolding: Parents time interactions so that infants receive support when it is needed to advance a skill
• Used to support children’s efforts at any age

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Social Contexts

• Managing and guiding infants’ behavior
• Attempts to reduce or eliminate undesirable behaviors, include:
• Being proactive and childproofing the environment
• Engaging in corrective methods
• Use of discipline and corrective methods
• Special concerns that corrective discipline does not become abusive

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Figure 4.7 – Parents’ Methods for Managing and Correcting Infants’ Undesirable Behavior

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Social Contexts

• Maternal and paternal caregiving
• Mothers still spend considerably more time in caregiving than fathers
• More likely to engage in managerial role with children
• Paternal interactions tend to be play-centered
• Increasing number of full-time stay-at-home fathers in U.S.
• Stay-at-home fathers as satisfied with marriage as traditional parents
• But do miss daily workplace life
• Tend to be ostracized, excluded from play groups

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Social Contexts

• Child care
• Many children in the U.S. experience multiple caregivers
• Includes child care provided by others
• Parental leave
• Many U.S. adults do not receive paid leave to care for young children
• Child care policies vary across the world
• European Union mandated 14 week paid maternity leave in 1992
• U.S. currently allows up to 12 weeks of unpaid leave for parents who are caring for a newborn

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Social Contexts

• Variations in child care
• Factors that influence the effects of child care include:
• Age of the child
• Type of child care
• Quality of the program
• Type of child care varies extensively
• Large centers
• Private homes
• Commercial operations and nonprofit centers
• Child care providers can be professionals or untrained adults

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Figure 4.8 – Primary Care Arrangements in the U.S. for Children Under 5 Years of Age with Employed Mothers

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Social Contexts

• High-quality child care includes:
• Active engagement in variety of activities
• Frequent, positive interactions with child
• Encouraging child to talk about experiences, feelings, and ideas
• Safe environment
• Age-appropriate toys and activities
• Low caregiver-child ratio

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Social Contexts

• Strategies parents can follow in regard to child care:
• Recognize that the quality of your parenting is a key factor in your child’s development
• Make decisions that will improve the likelihood that you will be good parents
• Monitor your child’s development
• Take time to find the best child care