PSYCHOLOGY 2070 1

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ESSENTIALS OF LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT, 5e
JOHN W. SANTROCK

3

PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY

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Chapter Outline

• Physical growth and development in infancy
• Motor development
• Sensory and perceptual development
• Cognitive development
• Language development

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Physical Growth and Development

• Patterns of growth
• Cephalocaudal pattern
• Sequence in which the earliest growth always occurs at the top
• Physical growth and differentiation of features work their way down from top to bottom
• Proximodistal pattern
• Sequence in which growth starts at the center of the body and moves toward the extremities

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Physical Growth and Development

• Height and weight
• Average American newborn is 20 inches long and weighs 7½ pounds
• Most newborns lose 5-7% of body weight before adjusting to feeding
• Weight gain then becomes rapid
• Grow about ¾ inch per month during the first year
• Growth rate slows considerably in second year of life
• By 2 years, infants weigh approximately 26 to 32 pounds and average 32-35 inches tall

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Physical Growth and Development

• The Brain
• Extensive brain development continues after birth, throughout infancy, and even later
• At birth, the brain weighs about 25% of its adult weight
• By 2 years, the brain is 75% of its adult weight
• Brain areas do not mature uniformly
• Shaken baby syndrome - Brain swelling and hemorrhaging
• Measuring the Brain’s Development
• Functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS)
• Positron-emission tomography (PET)
• Magnetic Resonance imaging (MRI)
• Electroencephalogram (EEG)

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Physical Growth and Development

• Mapping the brain
• Forebrain – includes cerebral cortex and several structures beneath it
• Cerebral cortex – covers forebrain like a wrinkled cap
• 4 lobes – frontal lobe, temporal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe
• Lateralization – specialization of function in one hemisphere or the other of the brain
• Brain begins to specialize at birth

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Figure 3.4 – The Brain’s Four Lobes

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Physical Growth and Development

• The neuron
• Neuron – nerve cell that handles information processing
• Axon and dendrite fibers
• Myelin sheath – layer of fat that encases many axons
• Provides insulation, helps electrical signals travel faster down axon, facilitates communication
• Neurotransmitters – chemicals in the brain
• Synapses – tiny gaps between neurons

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Figure 3.5 – The Neuron

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Physical Growth and Development

• Changes in neurons
• Myelination – process of encasing axons with fat cells
• Begins prenatally and continues throughout childhood and adolescence
• Pace of myelination varies in different areas of the brain
• Connectivity between neurons increases
• New dendrites grow and new neural pathways are created
• Used connections become stronger and survive, unused ones are replaced or disappear (“pruning”)
• Blooming and pruning vary by brain region
• Heredity and environment influence timing and course

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Figure 3.6 – Synaptic Density in Brain from Infancy to Adulthood

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Physical Growth and Development

• Early experience and the brain
• Genes direct how the brain establishes basic wiring patterns before birth
• After birth, environmental experiences guide brain’s development
• Infants whose caregivers expose them to a variety of stimuli are most likely to develop to their full potential
• Children in deprived environments may have depressed brain activity
• Brain demonstrates both flexibility and resilience due to profusion of neutral connections

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Physical Growth and Development

• Neuroconstructivist view
• Biological processes and environmental conditions influence brain’s development
• Brain has plasticity and is context-dependent
• Development of the brain and the child’s cognitive development are closely linked

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Physical Growth and Development

• Sleep
• Typical newborn sleeps 16-17 hours per day
• By 6 months, the majority of infants sleep throughout the night
• Night-time waking is the most common infant sleep-related problem
• REM (rapid eye movement) sleep
• Infants spend about half of their sleep time in REM sleep
• Often begin sleep cycle with REM sleep rather than non-REM sleep
• May promote infant brain development

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Physical Growth and Development

• Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)
• Occurs when an infant stops breathing, usually at night
• Suddenly dies without an apparent cause
• SIDS is the highest cause of infant death in the United States

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Physical Growth and Development

• SIDS is more likely to occur:
• When infant is placed on stomach or side to sleep
• Due to maternal smoking, in infants passively exposed to cigarette smoke
• When infants are formula fed rather than breastfed
• If infants have abnormal brain stem functioning involving serotonin
• In low birth weight infants
• In African American and Eskimo infants
• When infants don’t use a pacifier when they go to sleep
• When infants sleep in a bedroom without a fan

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Physical Growth and Development

• Breast versus bottle-feeding
• Human milk or formula is an appropriate source of nutrients and energy for first 4-6 months of life
• Breastfeeding is better for both baby’s and mother’s health
• Benefits of Breastfeeding for baby
• Appropriate weight gain
• Lowered risk of childhood obesity
• Fewer gastrointestinal infections
• Fewer lower respiratory tract infections
• No evidence of benefits in cognitive development or cardiovascular functioning

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Physical Growth and Development

• Benefits of breastfeeding for mother
• Lower incidence of breast cancer
• Reduction in ovarian cancer
• Small increase in intelligence
• Mother should not breastfeed if:
• She is infected with HIV or infections passed through breastmilk
• She has active tuberculosis
• She is taking any drug that unsafe for the infant (rare)

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Physical Growth and Development

• Nutritional needs
• U.S. parents feed babies too few fruits and vegetables, too much junk food
• Adequate early nutrition is an important aspect of healthy development

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Motor Development

• Dynamic systems theory
• Infants assemble motor skills for perceiving and acting
• Perception and action are coupled together
• Motor skill is developed by:
• Development of the nervous system
• Body’s physical properties and its possibilities for movement
• A goal the child is motivated to reach
• Environmental support for the skill

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Motor Development

• Reflexes - Built-in reactions to stimuli
• Govern the newborn’s movements
• Genetically carried survival mechanisms that are automatic and involuntary

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Motor Development

• Rooting reflex
• Occurs when the infant’s cheek is stroked or the side of the mouth is touched; infant turns its head in an effort to find something to suck
• Sucking reflex
• Occurs when newborns automatically suck an object placed in mouth
• Moro reflex
• Startles in response to a sudden, intense noise or movement
• Grasping reflex
• Occurs when something touches the infant’s palms, responds by grasping tightly

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Motor Development

• Gross motor skills
• Involve large-muscle activities
• Includes moving one’s arms and walking
• Newborn infants cannot voluntarily control their posture
• Locomotion and postural control are closely linked, especially in walking upright

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Figure 3.10 - Milestones in Gross Motor Development

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Motor Development

• Gross motor skills develop in the second year
• Toddlers become more mobile as motor skills are honed
• By 13-18 months, toddlers can:
• Pull a toy attached to a string or climb stairs
• By 18-24 months, toddlers can:
• Walk quickly
• Balance on their feet
• Walk backward and stand and kick a ball

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Motor Development

• Fine motor skills
• Involve more finely tuned movements
• Grasping a toy, using a spoon, buttoning a shirt, or anything that requires finger dexterity
• Infants need to exercise their fine motor skills

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Sensory and Perceptual Development

• Sensation
• Occurs when information interacts with sensory receptors
• Eyes, ears, tongue, nostrils, and skin
• Perception
• Interpretation of what is sensed

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Sensory and Perceptual Development

• Ecological view
• Directly perceives information that exists in the world around us
• Studying the infant’s perception
• Visual preference method: Studying whether infants can distinguish one stimulus from another by measuring the length of time they attend to different stimuli

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Figure 3.12 – Fantz’s Experiment on Infants’ Visual Perception

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Sensory and Perceptual Development

• Habituation and dishabituation
• Habituation: Name given to decreased responsiveness to a stimulus after repeated presentations of the stimulus
• Dishabituation: Recovery of a habituated response after a change in stimulation
• Eye-tracking
• Technology can facilitate the use of most methods for investigating the infant’s perceptual abilities

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Sensory and Perceptual Development

• Visual acuity and color
• Newborn’s vision is estimated at 20/600
• By 6 months, vision changes to 20/40
• Faces among most important visual stimuli
• Color vision improves
• Perceiving occluded objects
• Depth perception

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Figure 3.14 - Visual Acuity During the First Months of Life

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Figure 3.15 - Infants’ Predictive Tracking of a Briefly Occluded Moving Ball

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Figure 3.16 – Examining Infants’ Depth Perception on the Visual Cliff

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Sensory and Perceptual Development

• Hearing changes
• Loudness
• Pitch
• Localization
• Touch and pain
• Pain perception
• Smell
• Differentiation of odors and preferences
• Taste
• Sensitivity to taste
• Taste preferences

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Sensory and Perceptual Development

• Intermodal perception
• Involves integrating information from two or more sensory modalities
• Vision and hearing
• Most perception is intermodal, becomes sharper in first year of life

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Sensory and Perceptual Development

• Nature, nurture, and perceptual development
• Nativists - Emphasize nature
• Empiricists - Emphasize learning and experience
• Perceptual-motor coupling
• Perception and action are not isolated but rather are coupled
• Individuals perceive in order to move and move in order to perceive

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Cognitive Development

• Piaget’s Theory
• Build mental structures to help us adapt to the world
• Individuals go through 4 stages of development, advancing understanding of the world
• Processes of development
• Schemes: Actions or mental representations that organize knowledge
• Behavioral scheme (physical activities)
• Mental scheme (cognitive activities)
• Assimilation: Using existing schemes to deal with new information or experiences
• Accommodation: Adjusting schemes to fit new information and experiences

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Cognitive Development

• Organization: Grouping of isolated behaviors and thoughts into a higher-order system
• Equilibration: Mechanism by which children shift from one stage of thought to the next

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Cognitive Development

• Sensorimotor Stage (Birth - 2 years)
• Infants construct an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical, motor actions
• Object permanence
• Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched

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Figure 3.17 – Object Permanence

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Cognitive Development

• Evaluating Piaget’s Sensorimotor stage
• A-not-B error: Tendency of infants to reach where an object was located earlier rather than where the object was last hidden
• Older infants are less likely to make the A-not-B error because their concept of object permanence is more complete
• Core knowledge approach: States that infants are born with domain-specific innate knowledge systems

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Cognitive Development

• Operant conditioning
• If an infant’s behavior is followed by a rewarding stimulus, the behavior is likely to recur
• Attention:
• Focusing of mental resources on select information
• Habituation and dishabituation closely linked
• Joint attention – individuals focus on the same object or event
• Ability to track another’s behavior
• One person’s directing another’s attention

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Cognitive Development

• Imitation
• Imitative abilities as biologically based
• Deferred imitation: Occurs after a delay of hours or days
• Memory
• Involves retention of information over time
• Implicit memory: Without conscious recollection
• Explicit memory: Conscious remembering of facts and experiences
• Childhood amnesia - Most adults can remember little, if anything, from the first 3 years of their life

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Cognitive Development

• Concept formation and categorization
• Concepts: Cognitive groupings of similar objects, events, people, or ideas
• Perceptual categorization – categorization based on similar perceptual features of objects
• Conceptual categorization

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Language Development

• Language
• Form of communication that is spoken, written, or signed
• Based on a system of symbols
• Consists of the words used by a community and the rules for varying and combining them
• Infinite generativity - Ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using:
• Finite set of words and rules

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Language Development

• Babbling and gestures
• Crying
• Cooing
• Babbling
• Showing and pointing
• Recognizing language sounds
• Phonemes – basic sound units of language
• “Citizens of the world” – infants can distinguish sound changes no matter what language the syllables come from

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Language Development

• First words
• An infant’s receptive vocabulary considerably exceeds spoken vocabulary
• Receptive vocabulary - Words the child understands
• Spoken vocabulary - Words the child uses
• Vocabulary spurt – Rapid increase in vocabulary

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Figure 3.23 – Variation in Language Milestones

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Language Development

• Two-word utterances
• To convey meaning, child relies on gesture, tone, and context
• Telegraphic speech: Use of short and precise words without grammatical markers
• Articles, auxiliary verbs, and other connectives

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Language Development

• Biological influences on language
• Broca’s area – Area in the brain’s left frontal lobe that is involved in speech production
• Wernicke’s area – Area in the brain’s left hemisphere that is involved in language comprehension

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Language Development

• Language acquisition device (LAD)
• Chomsky’s term that describes a biological endowment enabling the child to detect the features and rules of language, including phonology, syntax, and semantics

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Language Development

• Environmental influences on language
• Behaviorist view of language learning has several problems
• Does not explain how people create novel sentences
• Children learn the syntax of their native language even if they are not reinforced for doing so
• Early speech input and poverty has effects on children’s language skills
• Vocabulary development is linked to family’s socioeconomic status and type of talk that parents direct to their children
• Child-directed speech: Language spoken in a higher pitch than normal, using simple words and sentences

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Language Development

• Strategies to enhance child’s acquisition of language:
• Recasting
• Expanding
• Labeling

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Interactionist View

• Language Acquisition
• Child’s experiences influence language acquisition
• Language also has strong biological foundations
• Interactionist view emphasizes that both biology and experience contribute to language development