psychology
Guessluck
SantrockEssentials5e_PPT_Ch022.pptCopyright © 2018 McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. This is proprietary material solely for authorized instructor use. Not authorized for sale or distribution in any manner. This document may not be copied, scanned, duplicated, forwarded, distributed, or posted on a website, in whole or part without the prior written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
ESSENTIALS OF LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT, 5e
JOHN W. SANTROCK
BIOLOGICAL BEGINNINGS
2
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Chapter Outline
- The evolutionary perspective
- Genetic foundations of development
- The interaction of heredity and environment: The nature-nurture debate
- Prenatal development
- Birth and the postpartum period
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The Evolutionary Perspective
- Natural selection - Evolutionary process by which those individuals of a species that are best adapted are the ones that survive and reproduce
- Adaptive behavior - Promotes an organism’s survival in its natural habitat
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The Evolutionary Perspective
- Evolutionary psychology
- Emphasizes the importance of adaptation, reproduction, and survival of the fittest in shaping behavior
- Growing interest in using concepts of evolutionary psychology to understand human development
- Extended childhood period evolved
- Domain-specific psychological mechanisms
- Evolved mechanisms are not always adaptive in contemporary society
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The Evolutionary Perspective
- Evaluating Evolutionary Psychology
- Evolution gave us biological potentialities, but it does not dictate behavior
- People have used their biological capacities to produce diverse cultures
- Aggressive and peace-loving, egalitarian and autocratic
- Studying specific genes in humans and other species and their links to traits and behaviors
- Best approach for testing ideas coming out of evolutionary psychology
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Genetic Foundations of Development
- Human life begins as a single cell
- Nucleus of each cell contains chromosomes
- Chromosomes: Threadlike structures made up of deoxyribonucleic acid
- DNA: A complex double-helix molecule that contains genetic information
- Genes: Units of hereditary information, are short segments of DNA
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Figure 2.2 - Cells, Chromosomes, DNA, and Genes
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Genetic Foundations of Development
- Human genome – complete set of developmental instructions for creating proteins that initiate the making of a human organism
- Genome consists of many genes that collaborate:
- With each other
- With non-genetic factors inside and outside the body
- Activity of genes is affected by their environment
- Stress, radiation, and temperature can influence gene expression
- Exposure to radiation changes the rate of DNA synthesis in cells
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Genetic Foundations of Development
- Mitosis, meiosis, and fertilization
- Mitosis: Reproduction of cells
- Meiosis: Cell division that forms sperm and eggs (gametes)
- Fertilization: A stage in reproduction when an egg and a sperm fuse to create a single cell, called a zygote
- Zygote: A single cell formed through fertilization
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Figure 2.3 - The Genetic Difference Between Males and Females
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Genetic Foundations of Development
- Sources of variability
- Combining the genes of two parents in offspring increases genetic variability
- Important sources of variability:
- Chromosomes in the zygote are not exact copies of those in the mother’s ovaries and the father’s testes
- Mutated genes – permanently altered segment of DNA
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Genetic Foundations of Development
- Genotype: A person’s genetic material
- Phenotype: Observable characteristics
- For each genotype, a range of phenotypes may be expressed
- Susceptibility genes – those that make an individual more vulnerable to specific diseases or acceleration of aging
- Longevity genes - those that make an individual less vulnerable to certain diseases and more likely to live to older ages
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Genetic Foundations of Development
- Dominant and recessive genes principle
- One gene of a pair always exerts its effects (dominant), overriding the potential influence of the other gene (recessive)
- Sex-linked genes
- When a mutated gene is carried on the X chromosome, the result is called X-linked inheritance
- Implications for males that differ greatly from females
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Genetic Foundations of Development
- Polygenic inheritance
- Polygenically determined by the interaction of many different genes
- Gene-gene interaction: Studies that focus on the interdependence of two or more genes in influencing:
- Characteristics
- Behavior
- Diseases
- Development
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Genetic Foundations of Development
- Chromosome abnormalities
- Sometimes a gamete formed in which sperm and ovum do not have their normal set of 23 chromosomes
- Down syndrome – Chromosomally transmitted form of intellectual disability, caused by presence of an extra copy of chromosome 21
- Sex-linked chromosome abnormalities
- Presence of an extra chromosome (either X or Y) or the absence of one X chromosome in females
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Genetic Foundations of Development
- Klinefelter syndrome (XXY)
- Males have an extra X chromosome
- Fragile X syndrome
- Abnormality in the X chromosome, which becomes constricted and often breaks
- Turner syndrome (XO)
- Females in which an X chromosome is missing
- XYY syndrome
- Male has an extra Y chromosome
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Figure 2.4 – Some Chromosome Abnormalities
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Genetic Foundations of Development
- Gene-linked abnormalities
- Produced by defective genes
- Phenylketonuria (PKU)
- Metabolic disorder that, left untreated, causes mental retardation
- Sickle-cell anemia
- Blood disorder that limits the body’s oxygen supply
- Can cause joint swelling, as well as heart and kidney failure
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Figure 2.5 – Some Gene-Linked Abnormalities
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The Interaction of Heredity and Environment: The Nature-Nurture Debate
- Behavior genetics
- Field that seeks to discover the influence of heredity and environment on individual differences in human traits and development
- Twin study: Behavioral similarity of identical and fraternal twins is compared
- Adoption study: Seek to discover whether, in behavior and psychological characteristics, adopted children are:
- More like their adoptive parents, who provided a home environment
- More like their biological parents, who contributed their heredity
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The Interaction of Heredity and Environment: The Nature-Nurture Debate
- Heredity-environment correlations
- Passive genotype-environment correlations - Occur because biological parents, who are genetically related to the child, provide a rearing environment for the child
- Evocative genotype-environment correlations - Occur because a child’s characteristics elicit certain types of environments
- Active (niche-picking) genotype-environment correlations - Occur when children seek out environments that they find compatible and stimulating
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The Interaction of Heredity and Environment: The Nature-Nurture Debate
- Epigenetic view
- Development is the result of an ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and environment
- Gene X environment (G X E) interaction
- Interaction of:
- Specific measured variation in the DNA
- Specific measured aspect of the environment
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Figure 2.6 - Comparison of the Heredity-Environment Correlation and Epigenetic Views
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The Interaction of Heredity and Environment: the Nature-Nurture Debate
- Conclusions about heredity-environment interaction
- Relative contributions of heredity and environment are not additive
- Complex behaviors are influenced by genes in ways that gives people a propensity for a particular developmental trajectory
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Prenatal Development
- Germinal period
- Takes place in the first two weeks after conception
- Includes:
- Creation of fertilized egg (the zygote)
- Cell division
- Attachment of the multicellular organism to the uterine wall
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Figure 2.7 - Major Developments in the Germinal Period
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The Course of Prenatal Development
- Embryonic period
- Occurs from two to eight weeks after conception
- Rate of cell differentiation intensifies
- Support systems for cells form
- Organs appear
- Organogenesis: Process of organ formation during the first two months of prenatal development
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The Course of Prenatal Development
- Fetal period
- Extends from two months after conception until birth
- Lasts about seven months
- Growth and development continue their dramatic course during this time
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Figure 2.8 - Growth and Development in the Three Trimesters of Prenatal Development
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Figure 2.9 - Early Formation of the Nervous System
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Prenatal Development
- Prenatal diagnostic testing
- Used to determine if fetus is developing normally
- Decision on a given test depends on mother’s age, medical history, and genetic risks factors:
- Sonography (Ultrasound)
- Chorionic villus sampling
- Amniocentesis
- Maternal blood screening
- Fetal MRI
- Fetal Sex Determination (Cell-free DNA analysis)
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Prenatal Development
- Teratogen
- Any agent that can potentially cause a birth defect or negatively alter cognitive and behavioral outcomes
- Dose, genetic susceptibility, and time of exposure influences severity of damage
- Prescription and Nonprescription Drugs
- Isotretinoin
- Psychoactive drugs
- Caffeine
- Alcohol
- Nicotine
- Cocaine
- Marijuana
- Heroin
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Prenatal Development
- Fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD)
- A cluster of abnormalities and problems that appear in the offspring of mothers who drink alcohol heavily during pregnancy
- Includes facial deformities; defective limbs, face, and heart; learning problems; and/or intellectual disability
- Environmental Hazards
- Radiation, toxic waste, environmental pollutants
- Maternal diseases
- Syphilis
- HIV/AIDS
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Prenatal Development
- Other Parental Factors
- Maternal diet and nutrition
- Maternal age
- Emotional states and stress
- Paternal factors
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Prenatal Development
- Prenatal care
- Varies enormously from one woman to another
- Usually involves defined schedule of visits for medical care which includes screening for:
- Manageable conditions
- Treatable diseases that can affect the baby and/or the mother
- Comprehensive educational, social, and nutritional services
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Birth and the Postpartum Period
- The birth process
- First stage
- Longest stage
- Uterine contractions dilate the cervix
- Second stage
- Baby’s head starts to move through the birth canal from maternal pushing efforts
- Ends when the baby completely emerges from the mother’s body
- Third stage
- Placenta detaches and is expelled
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Birth and the Postpartum Period
- Childbirth setting and attendants
- Midwife – Provides health care to women during pregnancy, birth, and postpartum period
- Reduce procedures and increase satisfaction, with outcomes equal to MD care for low-risk women
- Homebirth is on the increase in the U.S.
- Doula – Supports the mother before, during, and after childbirth
- Adjunct to care, not the provider of maternity health care
- Can greatly reduce the cesarean rate
- OB/GYN and Family Practice MD
- Work almost exclusively in hospitals
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Birth and the Postpartum Period
- Methods of Childbirth
- Medication
- Analgesia - Used to relieve pain
- Include tranquilizers, barbiturates, and narcotics
- Anesthesia - Used in late first-stage labor and during delivery to block sensation in an area of the body or to block consciousness
- Epidural block
- Pitocin - Synthetic oxytocin used to stimulate contractions
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Birth and the Postpartum Period
- Natural childbirth: Method in which no drugs are given to relieve pain or assist in the birth process
- Prepared childbirth: Includes special breathing techniques to control pushing in the final stages of labor
- More detailed education about anatomy and physiology
- Also known as Lamaze method
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Birth and the Postpartum Period
- Other non-medicated techniques to reduce pain
- Water birth
- Massage
- Acupuncture
- Cesarean delivery – Baby is removed from the uterus through an incision made in the mother’s abdomen
- Benefits and risks of this procedure continue to be debated
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Birth and the Postpartum Period
- Anoxia – Condition in which fetus/newborn has insufficient supply of oxygen
- Can cause brain damage
- Baby has considerable capacity to withstand stress of birth
- Hormones protect fetus in the event of oxygen deficiency
- Immediately after birth, newborn is taken to be tested for signs of developmental problems that require urgent attention
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Birth and the Postpartum Period
- Apgar Score
- Widely used to assess the health of newborns at 1 and 5 minutes after birth
- Evaluates infants’ heart rate, respiratory effort, muscle tone, body color, and reflex irritability
- Especially good at assessing newborn’s ability to respond to stress of delivery and its new environment
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Birth and the Postpartum Period
- Low birth weight - Weight less than 5 pounds at birth
- Very low birth weight - Weight under 3 pounds
- Extremely low birth weight - Weight under 2 pounds
- Preterm - Born three weeks or more before the pregnancy has reached its full term
- Small for dates – Below normal birth weight when length of pregnancy is considered
- May be preterm or full term
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Birth and the Postpartum Period
- Consequences of low birth weight
- More health and developmental problems than normal birth weight infants, including:
- Learning disabilities
- Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
- Autism spectrum disorders
- Breathing problems such as asthma
- Interventions in neonatal intensive care unit (NICU):
- Kangaroo care – skin-to-skin contact with baby held against parent’s bare chest
- Massage therapy
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Birth and the Postpartum Period
- Bonding
- Formation of a connection, especially a physical bond between parents and the newborn in the period shortly after birth
- Bonding hypothesis proposes “critical period” shortly after birth to form an emotional attachment and foundation for optimal development
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Birth and the Postpartum Period
- Postpartum Period
- Period after childbirth or delivery that lasts for about six weeks
- The mother’s body completes its adjustment and returns to a nearly pre-pregnant state
- Physical adjustments
- Fatigue
- Loss of sleep
- Sudden and dramatic change in hormone production
- Involution – uterus returns to pre-pregnant size
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Birth and the Postpartum Period
- Emotional adjustments
- Postpartum blues
- Feeling anxious, depressed, or upset
- May come and go for several months after birth, but usually goes away after 1-2 weeks
- Postpartum depression
- Strong feelings of sadness, anxiety, despair, and trouble coping with daily tasks
- Symptoms linger for weeks or months and interfere with daily functioning
- Fathers also experience considerable adjustment in the postpartum period
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