PSYCHOLOGY 2070 1

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ESSENTIALS OF LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT, 5e
JOHN W. SANTROCK

INTRODUCTION

Chapter Outline

The life-span perspective
The nature of development
Theories of development
Research in life-span development

The Life-Span Perspective

Development: Pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the human life span
Importance of studying life-span development
Prepares us to take responsibility for children
Gives us insight about our own lives

The Life-Span Perspective

Characteristics of the life-span perspective
Development is:
Lifelong
Multidimensional
Multidirectional
Plastic
Multidisciplinary
Contextual
A process that involves growth, maintenance, and regulation of loss

The Life-Span Perspective

Normative age-graded influences: Similar for individuals in a particular age group
Normative history-graded influences: Common to people of a particular generation because of historical circumstances
Non-normative life events: Unusual occurrences that have a major impact on an individual’s life

The Life-Span Perspective

Contemporary concerns in life-span development
Health and well-being
Parenting and education
Sociocultural contexts and diversity
Culture: Behavior patterns, beliefs, and all other products of a group that are passed on from generation to generation

The Life-Span Perspective

Cross-cultural studies: Comparison of one culture with one or more other cultures
Ethnicity: Based on cultural heritage, nationality characteristics, race, religion, and language
Socioeconomic status: Grouping of people with similar occupational, educational, and economic characteristics
Gender: Characteristics of people as male or female
Social policy: National government’s course of action designed to promote the welfare of its citizens

The Nature of Development

Changes in an individual’s physical nature

Biological processes

Changes in an individual’s thought, intelligence, and language

Cognitive processes

Changes in an individual’s relationships with other people, emotions, and personality

Socioemotional processes

The Nature of Development

Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes are inextricably intertwined.
Connection is obvious in rapidly emerging fields of:
Developmental cognitive neuroscience - Explores links between development, cognitive processes, and the brain
Developmental social neuroscience - Examines connections between socioemotional processes, development, and the brain

Figure 1.3 – Processes Involved in Developmental Changes

The Nature of Development

Periods of development
Prenatal period
Infancy
Early childhood
Middle and late childhood
Adolescence
Early adulthood
Middle adulthood
Late adulthood

The Nature of Development

Conceptions of age
Chronological age
Biological age - Person’s age in terms of biological health
Psychological age - Individual’s adaptive capacities compared with those of other individuals of the same chronological age
Social age - Connectedness with others and the social roles individuals adopt
Age and happiness
Research revealed that happiness increased with age
Hedonic Aspects and Evaluative
Happiness and positive affect have an upward trajectory from early adulthood through late adulthood
Evaluative- life satisfaction that reaches a low point in middle adulthood

Three Development Patterns of Aging

Normal aging
Most individuals
Psychological functions peaks in early middle age
Stable until the late fifties
Pathological aging
Great than average decline
Early old age, may have mild cognitive impairment
Successful aging
Positive physical, cognitive, and socioemotional development is maintained longer
Declining later in old age

The Nature of Development

Nature-nurture issue - concerns the extent to which development is influenced by nature and by nurture
Nature – Biological inheritance
Nurture – Environmental experiences
Stability-change issue – the degree to which early traits and characteristics persist through life or change
Continuity-discontinuity issue – the degree to which development involves either gradual, cumulative change or distinct stages of change

Theories of Development

Scientific method
Conceptualize a process or problem to be studied
Collect research information
Analyze data
Draw conclusions
Theory
An interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain phenomena and facilitate predictions
Hypotheses
Specific assumptions and predictions that can be tested to determine their accuracy

Theories of Development

Psychoanalytic Theories – Describe development as primarily unconscious and heavily colored by emotion
Freud’s theory – 5 stages of psychosexual development
Erikson’s psychosocial theory – 8 stages of psychosocial development

Figure 1.5 – Freudian Stages

Figure 1.6 – Erikson’s Eight Life-Span Stages

Theories of Development

Evaluating psychoanalytic theories
Emphasis on:
A developmental framework
Family relationships
Unconscious aspects of the mind
Criticisms
Lack of scientific support
Too much emphasis on sexual underpinnings
An image of people that is too negative

Theories of Development

Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental theory
4 stages of cognitive development as children actively construct their understanding of the world

Figure 1.7 - Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development

Theories of Development

Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive theory
Emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development
Information-processing theory
Emphasizes that individuals:
Manipulate information
Monitor information
Strategize about information

Theories of Development

Evaluating Cognitive Theories
Contributions
Positive view of development
Emphasis on the active construction of understanding
Criticisms
Skepticism about the pureness of Piaget’s stages
Little attention to individual variations

Theories of Development

Behavior and Social Cognitive Theories
Development can be described in terms of behaviors learned through interactions with our surroundings
Skinner’s operant conditioning
Development consists of the pattern of behavioral changes that are brought about by rewards and punishments
Bandura’s social cognitive theory
Holds that behavior, environment, and person/cognitive factors are the key factors in development

Figure 1.8 – Bandura’s Social Cognitive Model

Theories of Development

Evaluating Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories
Emphasis on:
Scientific research
Environmental determinants of behavior
Criticisms
Little emphasis on cognition in Skinner’s view
Inadequate attention paid to developmental changes

Theories of Development

Ethology: Study of the behavior of animals in their natural habitat
Theory stresses that behavior is:
Strongly influenced by biology
Tied to evolution
Characterized by critical or sensitive periods
Lorenz’s research with Greylag Geese
Konrad Lorenz helped bring ethology to prominence
John Bowlby - Attachment to a caregiver over the first year of life has important consequences throughout the life span

Theories of Development

Evaluating Ethological Theory
Contributions include:
Focus on the biological and evolutionary basis of development
Use of careful observations in naturalistic settings

Theories of Development

Ecological theory
Brofenbrenner’s ecological theory – Focuses of 5 environmental systems:
Microsystem
Mesosystem
Exosystem
Macrosystem
Chronosystem

Figure 1.9 - Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory of Development

Theories of Development

Evaluating Ecological Theory
Contributions include:
Systematic examination of macro and micro dimensions of environmental systems
Attention to connections between environmental systems
Emphasis on a range of social contexts beyond the family
Criticism
Giving inadequate attention to biological factors
Too little emphasis on cognitive factors

Theories of Development

No single theory can explain the rich complexity of life-span development
Eclectic theoretical orientation - Does not follow any one theoretical approach
Selects from each theory whatever is considered that theory’s best features

Research in Life-Span Development

Methods for Collecting Data
Observation
Laboratory: Controlled setting in which many of the complex factors of the real world are removed
Naturalistic observation: Studies that involve observing behavior in real-world settings
Survey and interview
Standardized test: Uniform procedures for administration and scoring
Case study: In-depth look at a single individual
Physiological measures

Research in Life-Span Development

Research Designs
Descriptive research: Designed to observe and record behavior
Correlational research: Describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics
Correlation coefficient - A number based on statistical analysis that is used to describe the degree of association between two variables
Ranges from -1.00 to +1.00
Experiment: One or more of the factors are manipulated while all other factors are held constant
Independent and dependent variables
Experimental and control groups

Figure 1.12 - Principles of Experimental Research

Research in Life-Span Development

Time span of research
Cross-sectional approach: Individuals of different ages are compared at one time
Longitudinal approach: Same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more
Cohort effects: Due to a person’s time of birth, era, or generation rather than the person’s actual age

Research in Life-Span Development

American Psychological Association’s (APA) ethics guidelines address:
Informed consent
Confidentiality
Debriefing
Deception