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santrockchild15_ppt_ch01_Accessible.pptxChapter 1
Introduction
CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Fifteenth Edition
JOHN W. SANTROCK KIRBY DEATER-DECKARD JENNIFER E. LANSFORD
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Learning Goals
Identify five areas in which children’s lives need to be improved, and explain the roles of resilience and social policy in children’s development.
Discuss the most important processes, periods, and issues in development.
Summarize why research is important in child development, the main theories of child development, and research methods, designs, and challenges.
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Caring for Children
To better care for children, we need to examine:
Children’s development;
Areas in which children’s lives need to be improved; and
The roles of resilience and social policy in development.
Development is the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues through the life span.
It involves growth, but it also includes decline.
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Improving the Lives of Children
Some topics of contemporary concern:
Health and well-being;
Parenting and education; and
Sociocultural contexts and diversity:
Culture: behavior patterns, beliefs, and other products of a people that are passed on from generation to generation.
Cross-cultural studies compare two or more cultures.
Ethnicity: characteristic based on cultural heritage, nationality characteristics, race, religion, and language.
Socioeconomic status (SES): a person’s position within society based on occupational, educational, and economic characteristics.
Gender: the characteristics of people as males and females.
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Resilience, Social Policy, and Children’s Development 1
Resilience is exemplified by children who develop confidence in their abilities despite serious obstacles.
These include negative stereotypes about their gender or ethnic group; and poverty or other adversities.
A number of individual factors influence resiliency, including:
Good self-control;
Good intellectual functioning;
A close relationship to a caring parent figure; and
Bonds to caring adults outside the family.
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Figure 2 Characteristics of Resilient Children and Their Contexts
| Source | Characteristic |
| Individual | Good intellectual functioning. Appealing, sociable, easygoing disposition. Self-confidence, high self-esteem. Talents. Faith. |
| Family | Close relationship to caring parent figure. Authoritative parenting: warmth, structure, high expectations. Socioeconomic advantages. Connections to extended family supportive family networks. |
| Extrafamilial context | Bonds to caring adults outside the family. Connections to positive organizations. Attending effective schools. |
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Resilience, Social Policy, and Children’s Development 2
Social policy: government’s course of action designed to promote the welfare of its citizens.
Children who grow up in poverty represent a special concern.
Strategies for improving the lives of children include improving social policy for families.
When families fail or seriously endanger a child’s well-being, governments often step in to help.
Developmental psychologists and other researchers seek ways to help families living in poverty improve their well-being.
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Figure 3 Exposure to Six Stressors Among Poor and Middle-Income Children
One study analyzed the exposure to six stressors among poor children and middle-income children (Evans & English, 2002). Poor children were much more likely to face each of these stressors.
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Developmental Processes, Periods, and Issues
Psychologists who study development are drawn to both our shared characteristics and those that make us unique.
What shapes the common path of human development, and what are its milestones?
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Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes 1
Biological processes produce changes in an individual’s physical nature.
Examples: height, weight, and motor skill changes.
Cognitive processes involve changes in an individual’s thought, intelligence, and language.
Examples: two-word sentences and solving a puzzle.
Socioemotional processes involve changes in an individual’s relationships with other people, in emotions, and in personality.
Examples: smiling in response to a parent’s touch.
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Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes 2
Biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes interact and can influence each other.
Developmental cognitive neuroscience explores links between development, cognitive processes, and the brain.
Developmental social neuroscience examines connections between development, socioemotional processes, and the brain.
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Figure 4 Changes in Development Are the Result of Biological, Cognitive, and Socioemotional Processes
The processes interact as individuals develop.
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Periods of Development 1
Prenatal period: the time from conception to birth, roughly nine months.
A single cell grows into a fetus and then a baby.
Infancy: from birth to about 18 to 24 months of age.
Many psychological activities are just beginning.
Early childhood: the end of infancy to about 5 or 6 years of age; also called the preschool years.
Young children learn to become more self-sufficient, develop school readiness, and spend many hours in play with peers.
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Periods of Development 2
Middle and late childhood: between about 6 and 11 years of age; the elementary school years.
Children master the fundamental skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic; and they are formally exposed to the larger world.
Achievement becomes a more central theme.
Self-control increases.
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Periods of Development 3
Adolescence: a period of transition from childhood to early adulthood, from about 10 to 12 to about 18 to 19.
It begins with rapid physical changes.
The pursuit of independence and an identity are prominent features.
More and more time is spent outside the family.
Thought becomes more abstract, idealistic, and logical.
Today, developmental psychologists do not believe change ends with adolescence.
Development is a lifelong process.
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Figure 5 Processes and Periods of Development
Development moves through the prenatal, infancy, early childhood, middle and late childhood, and adolescence periods. These periods of development are the result of interacting biological, cognitive, and socioemotional processes.
Access the text alternative for slide images.
(Left to right): Steve Allen/Getty Images; Courtesy of Dr. John Santrock; Laurence Mouton/PhotoAlto/Getty Images; Ken Karp/McGraw-Hill Education; SW Productions/Brand X Pictures/Getty Images
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Cohort Effects
A cohort is a group of people born at a similar point in history who share similar experiences as a result.
Examples: those who grew up during the Great Depression and World War II.
Cohort effects: effects due to a person’s time of birth, era, or generation but not to actual age.
Millennials are the generation born after 1980, characterized in particular by:
Ethnic diversity; and
Their connection to technology.
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Issues in Development 1
Nature-nurture issue: whether development is primarily influenced by nature or by nurture—biological inheritance or environmental experiences.
Continuity-discontinuity issue: whether development involves gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity).
Early-later experience issue: the degree to which early experiences (especially in infancy) or later experiences are the key determinants of children’s development.
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Issues in Development 2
Most developmental psychologists recognize it is unwise to take an extreme position on any of these issues.
All play a part in development throughout the life span.
There is still spirited debate.
If there are gender differences, why?
Can enriched experiences in adolescence remove negative effects of early childhood poverty and neglect?
Answers to such questions have a bearing on social policy.
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The Science of Child Development
Child development as a science studies such matters as:
How parents nurture children;
How peers interact;
The ways in which children’s thinking develops over time;
Whether screen time is linked with being overweight;
Whether special care can repair the harm of neglect; and
Whether mentoring can improve children’s achievement.
It is the way these topics are studied that makes the approach scientific.
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The Importance of Research
Scientific research is objective, systematic, and testable, reducing the likelihood that information will be based on personal beliefs, opinions, and feelings.
The scientific method used by researchers is a four-step process:
Conceptualize a process or problem to be studied;
Collect research information (data);
Analyze data; and
Draw conclusions.
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Theories of Child Development
Theory: an interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain and to make predictions.
Hypothesis: a specific, testable assumption or prediction.
Testing a hypothesis can inform researchers whether a theory is likely to be accurate.
Often a hypothesis is written as an if-then statement.
Example: If children from impoverished backgrounds are given individual attention by mentors, then the children will spend more time studying and earn higher grades.
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Theories of Child Development: Psychoanalytic Theories 1
Psychoanalytic theories describe development as primarily unconscious (beyond awareness) and heavily colored by emotion.
Behavior is merely a surface characteristic.
Understanding development requires analyzing symbolic meanings of behavior and the deep inner workings of the mind.
Theorists stress the importance of early experiences with parents.
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Theories of Child Development: Psychoanalytic Theories 2
Sigmund Freud (1856 to 1939) envisioned five stages of psychosexual development: oral, anal, phallic, latency, and genital.
He claimed our adult personality is determined by the way we resolve conflicts between sources of pleasure and the demands of reality at each stage.
Many theorists today maintain that Freud overemphasized sexual instincts.
They place more emphasis on cultural experiences.
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Figure 7 Freudian Stages
| Oral Stage | Anal Stage | Phallic Stage | Latency Stage | Genital Stage |
| Infant’s pleasure centers on the mouth. | Child’s pleasure focuses on the anus. | Child’s pleasure focuses on the genitals. | Child represses sexual interest and develops social and intellectual skills. | A time of sexual reawakening; source of sexual pleasure becomes someone outside the family. |
| Birth to 1½ Years | 1½ to 3 Years | 3 to 6 Years | 6 Years to Puberty | Puberty Onward |
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Theories of Child Development: Psychoanalytic Theories 3
Erik Erikson (1902 to 1994) said we develop in psychosocial rather than psychosexual stages.
The primary motivation for human behavior is social and reflects a desire to affiliate with other people.
Developmental change occurs throughout the life span.
In Erikson’s theory, eight stages of development unfold; and at each stage, a unique developmental task confronts individuals with a crisis that must be resolved.
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Figure 8 Erikson’s Eight Life-Span Stages
| Erikson’s Stages | Developmental Period |
| Trust versus mistrust | Infancy (first year) |
| Autonomy versus shame and doubt | Infancy (1 to 3 years) |
| Initiative versus guilt | Early childhood (preschool years, 3 to 5 years) |
| Industry versus inferiority | Middle and late childhood (elementary school years, 6 years to puberty) |
| Identity versus identity confusion | Adolescence (10 to 20 years) |
| Intimacy versus isolation | Early adulthood (20s, 30s) |
| Generativity versus stagnation | Middle adulthood (40s, 50s) |
| Integrity versus despair | Late adulthood (60s onward) |
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Theories of Child Development: Cognitive Theories 1
Cognitive theories emphasize conscious thought.
Among these is the cognitive developmental theory of Jean Piaget (1896 to 1980).
Piaget’s theory states that children actively construct their understanding of the world in four stages of cognitive development.
Two processes move us through the stages: organization and adaptation.
Cognition in each age-related stage is qualitatively different.
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Figure 9 Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development
| Sensorimotor Stage | Preoperational Stage | Concrete Operational Stage | Formal Operational Stage |
| The infant constructs an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions. An infant progresses from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward the end of the stage. | The child begins to represent the world with words and images. These words and images reflect increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the connection of sensory information and physical action. | The child can now reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets. | The adolescent reasons in more abstract, idealistic, and logical ways. |
| Birth to 2 Years of Age | 2 to 7 Years of Age | 7 to 11 Years of Age | 11 Years of Age Through Adulthood |
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Theories of Child Development: Cognitive Theories 2
Lev Vygotsky (1896 to 1934) also argued that children actively construct their knowledge.
Vygotsky’s theory is a sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development.
Children’s social interaction with more-skilled adults and peers is indispensable to their cognitive development.
This has stimulated interest in the view that knowledge is situated and collaborative.
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Theories of Child Development: Cognitive Theories 3
With the advent of computers, psychologists began to draw analogies between computer hardware and the brain, and between computer software and cognition.
Information-processing theory: individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategies about it.
Central to this theory are the processes of memory and thinking.
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Theories of Child Development: Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories 1
Behaviorism holds that we can study scientifically only what can be directly observed and measured.
Out of this tradition grew the belief that development is defined as observable behavior that can be learned through experience with the environment.
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Theories of Child Development: Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories 2
In the early 1900s, Ivan Pavlov discovered the principle of classical conditioning: a neutral stimulus produces a response originally produced by another stimulus.
Example: a bell rung with dogs’ food later elicits salivation when presented by itself.
John Watson and Rosalie Raynor (1920) demonstrated that classical conditioning occurs in humans.
Many of our fears may result from classical conditioning.
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Theories of Child Development: Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories 3
B. F. Skinner argued that a second type of conditioning—operant conditioning—accounts for other types of behavior.
The consequences of a behavior produce changes in the future probability of the behavior.
Skinner emphasized that development consists of the pattern of behavioral changes that are brought about by rewards and punishments.
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Theories of Child Development: Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories 4
Social cognitive theory: behavior, environment, and cognition are the key factors in development.
Albert Bandura (1925 to ) is the leading architect.
People acquire a wide range of behaviors, thoughts, and feelings through observing others’ behavior, and these observations powerfully influence children’s development.
Behavioral and social cognitive theories emphasize the importance of environmental influences.
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Figure 10 Bandura’s Social Cognitive Model
The arrows illustrate how relations between behavior, person/cognition, and environment reciprocally influence each other rather than being “unidirectional.”
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Theories of Child Development: Ethological Theory
Ethology: a field that stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods.
Konrad Lorenz (1903 to 1989) helped bring it to prominence with his study of imprinting in graylag goslings.
John Bowlby (1989) argued that attachment to a caregiver during the first year of life has important consequences throughout the life span.
The first year of life is a sensitive period for the development of social relationships.
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Theories of Child Development: Ecological Theory
Ecological theory emphasizes environmental factors.
One such theory significant to children’s development was proposed by Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917 to 2005).
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory: development reflects the influence of five environmental systems.
Microsystem: the setting in which the individual lives.
Mesosystem: relations between microsystems.
Exosystem: links between social setting and immediate context.
Macrosystem: the culture.
Chronosystem: environmental events and transitions over the life course, as well as historical circumstance.
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Figure 11 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory of Development
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory consists of five environmental systems: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem.
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Research Methods for Collecting Data 1
Systematic observation takes place in the laboratory and in the everyday world.
Laboratory: a controlled setting where many complex factors of the “real world” have been removed.
Participants will be aware they are being studied.
The unnatural setting can prompt unnatural behavior.
Participants may not be a diverse group.
The setting may intimidate.
Some aspects of children’s development are difficult to examine in the laboratory.
Laboratory studies of certain types of stress may be unethical.
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Research Methods for Collecting Data 2
Naturalistic observation: observing behavior in real-world settings with no effort to manipulate the situation.
Example: a study focused on conversations in a children’s science museum.
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Figure 13 Parents’ Explanations of Science to Sons and Daughters at a Science Museum
In a classic naturalistic observation study at a children’s science museum, parents were more than three times more likely to explain science to boys than to girls (Crowley & others, 2001). The gender difference occurred regardless of whether the father, the mother, or both parents were with the child, although the gender difference was greatest for fathers’ science explanations to sons and daughters.
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Research Methods for Collecting Data 3
Surveys (or questionnaires) and interviews are conducted in person, over the phone, and online.
One drawback is that participants may answer in a way they think is socially desirable, rather than what they truly feel.
Standardized test: a test with uniform procedures for administration and scoring.
Many allow a person’s performance to be compared with the performance of others.
They do not always predict behavior in non-test situations; they do not allow for the variability of personality and intelligence; and a test may not be appropriate in all cultures.
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Research Methods for Collecting Data 4
Case study: an in-depth look at a single individual.
The data often cannot be generalized to others.
Physiological measures include:
Blood samples, showing the blood levels of certain hormones; and
Neuroimaging, especially functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).
The data-collection method often depends on the goal of the research.
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Figure 14 Brain Imaging of 15-Year-Old Adolescents
The two brain images indicate how alcohol can influence the functioning of an adolescent’s brain. Notice the pink and red coloring (which indicates effective brain functioning involving memory) in the brain of the 15-year-old non-drinker while engaging in a memory task and the lack of those colors in the brain of the 15-year-old under the influence of alcohol.
Access the text alternative for slide images.
(left/right): Dr. Susan F. Tapert, University of California, San Diego;
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Research Designs 1
Descriptive research: aims to observe and record behavior; it cannot prove cause.
Correlational research: aims to describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics.
Correlation coefficient: a number based on a statistical analysis that describes the degree of association between two variables; it ranges from −1.00 to +1.00.
Correlation does not equal causation.
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Figure 15 Possible Explanations of This Correlation
Access the text alternative for slide images.
JupiterImages/Getty Images
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Research Designs 2
Experiment: a carefully regulated procedure in which one or more of the factors believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated while all other factors are held constant.
The independent variable is the manipulated factor.
The dependent variable is a factor that can change in response to changes in the independent variable.
An experimental group is a group whose experience is manipulated.
A control group is a comparison group that is treated the same way except for the manipulated factor (independent variable).
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Research Designs: Time Span of Research
Cross-sectional approach: a research strategy in which individuals of different ages are compared at the same point in time.
Longitudinal approach: a research strategy in which the same individuals are studied over time—usually several years or more.
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Figure 17 Connections of Research Methods to Theories
| Research Method | Theory |
| Observation | All theories emphasize some form of observation. Behavioral and social cognitive theories place the strongest emphasis on laboratory observation. Ethological theory places the strongest emphasis on naturalistic observation. |
| Interviews/survey | Psychoanalytic and cognitive studies (Piaget, Vygotsky) often use interviews. Behavioral, social cognitive, and ethological theories are the least likely to use surveys or interviews. |
| Standardized test | None of the theories discussed emphasize the use of this method. |
| Correlational research | All of the theories use this research method, although psychoanalytic theories are the least likely to use it. |
| Experimental research | The behavioral and cognitive theories and the information-processing theories are the most likely to use the experimental method. Psychological theories are the least likely to use it. |
| Cross-sectional/ longitudinal methods | No theory described uses these methods more than any other. |
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Challenges in Child Development Research: Conducting Ethical Research
The American Psychological Association (APA) has developed ethics guidelines for its members.
Informed consent: All participants must know what their participation will involve and what risks might develop; and they have the right to withdraw at any time for any reason.
Confidentiality: All data must be kept confidential and, when possible, anonymous.
Debriefing: After the study, participants should be informed of its purpose and methods.
Deception: Psychologists must ensure that any deception will not harm participants and that participants will be debriefed.
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Challenges in Child Development Research: Minimizing Bias
Studies are most useful when they are conducted without bias or prejudice.
Of special concern is bias based on gender and bias based on culture or ethnicity.
Ethnic gloss: use of an ethnic label such as African American or Latino in a superficial way that portrays an ethnic group as being more homogeneous than it really is.
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Review
Identify five areas in which children’s lives need to be improved, and explain the roles of resilience and social policy in children’s development.
Discuss the most important processes, periods, and issues in development.
Summarize why research is important in child development, the main theories of child development, and research methods, designs, and challenges.
© McGraw Hill
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End of Main Content
© 2021 McGraw Hill. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom.
No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill.
Because learning changes everything.®
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Accessibility Content: Text Alternatives for Images
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Figure 3 Exposure to Six Stressors Among Poor and Middle-Income Children - Text Alternative
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The bar chart shows the following data. Poor children: family turmoil: 45; child separation: 45; exposure to violence: 73; crowding: 16; excessive noise: 32; poor housing quality: 24. middle income children: family turmoil: 12; child separation: 14; exposure to violence: 49; crowding: 7; excessive noise: 21; poor housing quality: 3.
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Figure 5 Processes and Periods of Development - Text Alternative
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The biological processes is divided into the following: prenatal period, infancy, early childhood, middle and late childhood, and adolescence.
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Figure 10 Bandura’s Social Cognitive Model - Text Alternative
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It shows behavior, environment, and person/cognition connected by reversible arrows. Each factor leads to the other two factors.
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Figure 11 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory of Development - Text Alternative
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It consists of macrosystem: attitudes and ideologies of the culture, exosystem: friends of family, neighbors, legal services, socila wellfare services and mass media, mesosystem, microsystem: family, school, peers, neighborhood play area, religious groups, and health services. The individual sex, age, health etc. Chronosystem: patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course: sociohistorical conditions. Time: sociohistorical conditions and time since life events.
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Figure 13 Parents’ Explanations of Science to Sons and Daughters at a Science Museum - Text Alternative
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Bar chart plots percent of parent-child interactions in which parent explained science concepts on the vertical axis. The data in the chart are: boys: 28, girls: 7.
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Figure 14 Brain Imaging of 15-Year-Old Adolescents - Text Alternative
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The first image of a 15-year-old non-drinker shows effective brain functioning, the second image of a 15-year-old drinker shows lack of effective brain functioning.
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Figure 15 Possible Explanations of This Correlation - Text Alternative
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Permissive parenting causes children's lack of self-control. Child's lack of self control causes permissive parenting. A third factor such as genetic tendencies or poverty causes both. A text reads: An observed correlation between two events cannot be used to conclude that one event causes the other. Other possibilities are that the second event causes the first event or that a third event causes the correlation between the first two events. A photo beside shows a man working on his computer while two toddlers are playing behind him.
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