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Chapter 10

Language Development

CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Sixteenth Edition

JOHN W. SANTROCK KIRBY DEATER-DECKARD JENNIFER E. LANSFORD

Because learning changes everything.®

Learning Goals

Define language and describe its “rule systems.”

Describe how language develops.

Discuss the biological and environmental contributions to language development.

Evaluate how language and cognition are linked.

What Is Language?

Language is a form of communication—whether spoken, written, or signed—based on a system of symbols.

It consists of the words used by a community and the rules for varying and combining them.

All human languages have some common characteristics:

Infinite generativity: the ability to produce an endless number of meaningful sentences using a finite set of words and rules.

Language is orderly, and rules describe the way the language works.

Language’s “Rule Systems” 1

Phonology: the sound system of the language.

Sounds that are used and how they may be combined.

Phoneme: the basic unit of sound in a language.

Morphology: the units of meaning involved in word formation.

Rules of morphology dictate the way meaningful units—morphemes—can be combined into words.

Not all morphemes are words by themselves.

Language’s “Rule Systems” 2

Syntax: the ways in which words are combined to form acceptable phrases and sentences.

Semantics: the meaning of words and sentences.

Pragmatics: the appropriate use of language in different contexts.

Pragmatic rules can be complex and differ from one culture to another.

Figure 1 The “Rule Systems” of Language—Examples

The following content is arranged like a table.

Rule System	Examples
Phonology	The word chat has three phonemes or sounds: /ch/ /ã/ /t/. Here is an example of a phonological rule in the English language: While the phoneme /r/ can follow the phonemes /t/ or /d/ in an English consonant cluster (such as track or drab), the phoneme /l/ cannot follow these letters.
Morphology	The smallest sound units that have a meaning are called morphemes or meaning units. The word girl is one morpheme, or meaning unit; it cannot be broken down any further and still have meaning. When the suffix s is added, the word becomes girls and has two morphemes because the s changed the meaning of the word, indicating that there is more than one girl.
Syntax	Word order is very important in determining meaning in the English language. For example, the sentence “Sebastian pushed the bike” has a different meaning from “The bike pushed Sebastian.”
Semantics	Semantics involves knowing the meaning of individual words—that is, vocabulary. For example, semantics includes knowing the meaning of such words as orange, transportation, and intelligent.
Pragmatics	An example is using polite language in appropriate situations such as being mannerly when talking with one’s teacher. Taking turns in a conversation involves pragmatics.

How Language Develops: Infancy 1

Infants use early vocalizations to practice making sounds, to communicate, and to attract attention.

crying, with different types signaling different things;

cooing, first emerging at 1 to 2 months; and

babbling, often around the middle of the first year.

Infants begin using gestures at about 8 to 12 months.

Especially, showing and pointing.

Some gestures are symbolic.

Pointing is considered an important social aspect of language.

How Language Develops: Infancy 2

Long before they begin to learn words, infants can make fine distinctions among the sounds of language.

From birth to about 6 months, they are “citizens of the world,” able to recognize sound changes no matter which language the syllables come from.

They become even better at perceiving sounds in their “own” language.

Gradually, they lose the ability to recognize differences not found in their own language.

How Language Develops: Infancy 3

Children understand their first words earlier than they speak them.

On average, they understand about 50 words at age 13 months, but they can’t say this many until about 18 months.

Thus, receptive vocabulary exceeds spoken vocabulary.

Infants’ spoken vocabulary increases rapidly once their first words are spoken.

A vocabulary spurt occurs at approximately 18 months.

Figure 3 Variation in Language Milestones

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How Language Develops: Infancy 4

Cross-linguistic differences occur in learning.

Children learning Mandarin Chinese, Korean, and Japanese acquire more verbs earlier in development than do children learning English.

Children often overextend or underextend the meanings of words.

Overextension is the tendency to apply a word to objects that are inappropriate for the word’s meaning.

Underextension involves applying a word too narrowly.

How Language Develops: Infancy 5

Children utter two-word messages at around 18 to 24 months of age.

They rely on gesture, tone, and context to convey meaning.

Meanings communicated through two-word speech when the first language is English, German, Russian, Finnish, or Samoan:

Identification: “See doggie”

Location: “Book there”

Repetition: “More milk”

Possession: “My candy”

Attribution: “Big car”

Agent-action: “Mama walk”

Question: “Where ball?”

How Language Develops: Infancy 6

Telegraphic speech: the use of short and precise words without grammatical markers such as articles, auxiliary verbs, and other connectives.

It is not limited to two-word phrases.

Example: “Mommy give Tommy ice cream.”

Figure 4 Some Language Milestones in Infancy.

The following content is arranged like a table.

Typical Age	Language Milestones
Birth	Crying
2–4 months	Cooing begins
5 months	Understands first word
6 months	Babbling begins
7–11 months	Change from universal linguist to language-specific listener
8–12 months	Uses gestures, such as showing and pointing Comprehension of words appears
13 months	First word spoken
18 months	Vocabulary spurt starts
18–24 months	Uses two-word utterances Rapid expansion of understanding of words

Despite great variations in the language input received by infants, around the world they follow a similar path in learning to speak.

How Language Develops: Early Childhood 1

Toddlers move rather quickly from two-word utterances to creating three-, four-, and five-word combinations.

Young children’s understanding sometimes goes far beyond their speech.

Oddities often sound like mistakes to adults, but they represent how children perceive and understand their world.

Some children do develop language problems including in speech and hearing.

How Language Develops: Early Childhood 2

During the preschool years, most children become more sensitive to the sounds of spoken words and more able to produce all the sounds of their language.

By the time they move beyond two-word utterances, they demonstrate knowledge of morphology rules:

using plural and possessive of nouns;

using appropriate endings on verbs; and

the use of prepositions, articles, and various forms of the verb “to be”

Figure 5 Stimuli in Berko’s Study of Young Children’s Understanding of Morphological Rules.

In Jean Berko’s (1958) study, young children were presented cards, such as this one with a “wug” on it. Then the children were asked to supply the missing word; in supplying the missing word, they had to say it correctly too. “Wugs” is the correct response here.

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How Language Develops: Early Childhood 3

Preschool children also learn and apply rules of syntax.

They show a growing mastery of complex rules for word order.

Gains in semantics also characterize early childhood.

Vocabulary development is dramatic.

Fast mapping: making a connection between a word and its referent after limited exposure to a word.

How Language Develops: Early Childhood 4

Six key principles in vocabulary development:

Children learn the words they hear most often.

Children learn words for things and events that interest them.

Children learn words best in responsive and interactive contexts rather than in passive contexts.

Children learn words best in contexts that are meaningful.

Children learn words best when they access clear information about word meaning.

Children learn words best when grammar and vocabulary are considered.

How Language Develops: Early Childhood 5

Advances in pragmatics also characterize young children’s language development.

They begin to engage in extended discourse and learn culturally specific rules of conversation and politeness.

They also become sensitive to the need to adapt their speech in different settings.

As they get older, they learn to talk about things that are not here and not now.

Around 4 to 5 years, they learn to change their speech style to suit the situation.

How Language Develops: Early-Childhood Literacy 1

Literacy instruction for preschoolers should be built on what children already know about oral language, reading, and writing.

Physical activity aids early literacy.

Parents and teachers need to provide a supportive environment.

The extent to which phonological awareness is linked to learning to read effectively varies across language to some extent.

Rates of dyslexia differ across countries and are linked with spelling and phonetic rules.

How Language Develops: Early-Childhood Literacy 2

Books can be valuable in enhancing children’s communication skills.

Strategies for using books effectively with preschool children:

Use books to initiate conversation with young children.

Use what and why questions.

Encourage children to ask questions about stories.

Choose some books that play with language.

How Language Develops: Middle and Late Childhood

Children begin to organize their mental vocabulary in new ways during middle and late childhood.

They increasingly use language to talk about things that are not physically present; and they learn the alphabetic principle.

Advances in vocabulary and grammar take place.

This is accompanied by the development of metalinguistic awareness: knowledge about language, allowing children “to think about their language, understand what words are, and even define them” (Dong & others, 2020).

Children also make progress in pragmatics.

Middle and Late Childhood: Reading

The phonics approach to reading instruction teaches basic rules for translating written symbols into sounds.

The whole-language approach parallels children’s natural language learning.

They are taught to recognize whole words or sentences and use the context to guess the meaning.

Children benefit from both approaches, but each more so at different developmental stages.

Becoming a good reader includes reading fluently.

Figure 8 The Relation of Reading Achievement to Student Confidence in Reading-Related Tasks.

In the analysis of reading in the fourth grade in the National Assessment of Educational Progress (U.S. Department of Education, 2020), student confidence in being able to do these and other similar tasks was strongly related to being in the highest quarter of reading performance scores.

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Middle and Late Childhood: Writing

In early childhood, children’s motor skills progress to the point that they can begin printing letters.

As they begin to write, children often invent spellings, basing them on the sounds of the words they hear.

Writing skills develop as language and cognitive skills develop.

Writing takes practice.

Monitoring one’s writing progress is especially important.

Metacognitive strategies are linked with those of reading.

Bilingualism and Second-Language Learning 1

Are there sensitive periods in learning a second language?

Sensitive periods likely vary across language systems.

For adolescents and adults, new vocabulary is easier to learn than new sounds or grammar.

The ability to pronounce words with a native-like accent typically decreases with age.

A sharp drop occurs after ages 10 to 12.

Overall, bilingualism is linked to more positive outcomes for language and cognitive development.

Bilingualism and Second-Language Learning 2

A different type of bilingualism occurs when immigrant children must learn their new language at school.

In the United States, many end up being monolingual speakers of English—called subtractive bilingualism.

A current controversy related to English Language Learners (E L L s) involves the most effective way of teaching children whose primary language is not English and who are enrolled in U.S. schools.

How Language Develops: Adolescence

Adolescents develop more subtle abilities with words.

They make strides in understanding metaphor, an implied comparison between unlike things.

They also become better able to understand and use satire, or the use of irony, derision, or wit to expose folly or wickedness.

Most adolescents are also much better readers and writers than children are.

Young adolescents often speak a dialect with peers, characterized by jargon and slang.

Biological Influences 1

Although estimates vary, many experts hold that humans acquired language about 100,000 years ago.

Two specific regions of the brain are involved in language abilities:

Broca’s area: a region of the left frontal lobe involved in speech production and grammatical processing; and

Wernicke’s area: a region of the brain’s left hemisphere involved in language comprehension

Damage to either area produces aphasia, a loss or impairment of language processing.

Figure 9 Broca’s Area and Wernicke’s Area.

Broca’s area is located in the frontal lobe of the brain’s left hemisphere, and it is involved in the control of speech. Wernicke’s area is a portion of the left hemisphere’s temporal lobe that is involved in understanding language.

Swissmacky/Shutterstock

Biological Influences 2

Linguist Noam Chomsky (1957) proposed that humans are biologically prewired for language.

Children are born with a language acquisition device (LAD), an endowment that enables detection of certain features and rules of language, including phonology, syntax, and semantics.

The LAD is a theoretical construct not a physical structure.

Supporters of the concept point to the uniformity of language milestones across languages and cultures, evidence of creating language even in the absence of appropriate input, and biological substrates of language.

The concept cannot explain the entirety of language acquisition, however.

Environmental Influences 1

Decades ago, behaviorists argued language is simply chains of responses acquired through reinforcement.

This does not explain how people create novel sentences.

Moreover, children learn the syntax of their language even if they are not reinforced for doing so.

The behavioral view is no longer considered viable; but children’s environmental experiences do influence their language skills.

A child’s experiences, the particular language, and the context of learning strongly influence language acquisition.

Environmental Influences 2

Children use social skills to acquire language and learn language in specific contexts.

For optimal development, parents and teachers provide children with extensive opportunities to talk and be talked with.

One component of the young child’s linguistic environment is child-directed speech: language spoken in a higher pitch with simple words and sentences.

Environmental Influences 3

Adults use these strategies with children naturally and in meaningful conversations:

Recasting: rephrasing something the child has said in a fully grammatical sentence.

Expanding: restating what the child has said, in a linguistically sophisticated form.

Labeling: identifying the names of objects.

Children also benefit from shared reading.

Encouragement, not drill and practice, is the key.

Interaction with teachers and peers is also important.

Environmental Influences: An Interactionist View of Language

An interactionist view emphasizes that both biology and experience contribute to language development.

This can be seen in the variations in language acquisition.

Virtually every child benefits enormously from opportunities to talk and be talked with.

A rich verbal environment results in many positive outcomes.

Parents and teachers who pay attention to what children try to say, expand on children’s utterances, read to them, and label things in the environment are providing valuable benefits.

Language and Cognition 1

Williams syndrome offers insights into the normal development of thinking and language.

The most noticeable features of this genetic birth disorder include a unique combination of expressive verbal skills with an extremely low IQ and limited visuospatial and motor skills.

Verbal ability is generally associated with high intelligence.

Williams syndrome raises the possibility that thinking and language might not be so closely related.

Figure 11 Disparity in the Verbal and Motor Skills of an Individual with Williams Syndrome

Verbal Description of an Elephant

And what an elephant is, it is one of the animals. And what the elephant does, it lives in the jungle. It can also live in the zoo. And what it has, it has long gray ears, fan ears, ears that can blow in the wind. It has a long trunk that can pick up grass, or pick up hay . . . . If they’re in a bad mood it can be terrible . . . . If the elephant gets mad it could stomp; it could charge. Sometimes elephants can charge. They have big long tusks. They can damage a car . . . . It could be dangerous. When they’re in a pinch, when they’re in a bad mood it can be terrible. You don’t want an elephant as a pet. You want a cat or a dog or a bird . . . .

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Language and Cognition 2

Two basic and separate issues characterize connections between language and cognition:

Is cognition necessary for language?

Is spoken language necessary for cognition?

Researchers point to the following:

It is not clear that language development depends on any specific aspect of cognitive abilities; language and cognitive development may occur in parallel but dissociated fashions.

Based on studies of deaf children, spoken language is not necessary for cognitive development.

Review

Define language and describe its “rule systems.”

Describe how language develops.

Discuss the biological and environmental contributions to language development.

Evaluate how language and cognition are linked.

End of Main Content

Because learning changes everything.®

www.mheducation.com

Accessibility Content: Text Alternatives for Images

Figure 3 Variation in Language Milestones - Text Alternative

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The horizontal axis represents the language milestones. The vertical axis represents age (months), ranging from 9 to 27 in increments of 3. The bar for first words ranges from 10 to 17.8. The bar for vocabulary spurt ranges from 13 to 25.

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Figure 5 Stimuli in Berko’s Study of Young Children’s Understanding of Morphological Rules. - Text Alternative

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There is a drawing of two birds below. The text below reads, Now there is another one. There are two of them. There are two “blank line.”

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Figure 8 The Relation of Reading Achievement to Student Confidence in Reading-Related Tasks. - Text Alternative

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The horizontal axis shows percent ranging from 0 through 100, increasing in units of 10. The vertical axis shows three different activities. The data from the graph in the format, activities, range of percentile, percentage are as follows: Recognize difference between fact and opinion in a text: Below twenty-fifth percentile, 34; at or above seventy-fifth percentile, 75. Explain the meaning of something they have read: Below twenty-fifth percentile, 26; at or above seventy-fifth percentile, 44. Figure out the meaning of a word they don’t know by using other words in the text: Below twenty-fifth percentile, 23; at or above seventy-fifth percentile, 40. A note for all three values for below twenty-fifth percentile reads, Significantly different (p less than .05) from students performing at or above the 75th percentile.

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Figure 11 Disparity in the Verbal and Motor Skills of an Individual with Williams Syndrome - Text Alternative

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The line for the head leads to another large oval shape labeled as body. A circle below the nose is labeled as mouth. Eye is marked as a dot, and the ear is represented as an inverted triangle.

help with ppt and disc due i 24 hours

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