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Chapter 9

Intelligence

CHILD DEVELOPMENT

Sixteenth Edition

JOHN W. SANTROCK KIRBY DEATER-DECKARD JENNIFER E. LANSFORD

Because learning changes everything.®

Learning Goals

Explain the concept of intelligence.

Discuss the development of intelligence.

Describe the characteristics of intellectual disability, giftedness, and creativity.

The Concept of Intelligence

Intelligence: the ability to solve problems and to adapt and learn from experiences.

Other definitions often have different emphases including:

creativity and interpersonal skills; and the ability to use the tools of the culture with help from more-skilled individuals

Individual differences in intelligence are measured by intelligence tests designed to tell whether a person can reason better than others who have taken the test.

Intelligence Tests: The Binet Tests 1

Alfred Binet was asked to devise a method of identifying children who were unable to learn in school.

He developed the concept of mental age (MA), an individual’s level of mental development relative to others.

William Stern then created the concept of intelligence quotient (IQ), a person’s mental age divided by chronological age (CA), multiplied by 100.

If mental age is the same as chronological age, the IQ is 100.

Intelligence Tests: The Binet Tests 2

The current, fifth edition of the Stanford-Binet test analyzes an individual’s responses in five content areas.

It includes both verbal and nonverbal subscales that assess knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, working memory, and fluid reasoning.

It is scored by comparing one’s performance with the results of others of the same age.

Normal distribution: a symmetrical, bell-shaped curve with a majority of cases falling in the middle of the possible range.

Stanford-Binet continues to be one of the most widely used individual tests of intelligence.

Figure 1 The Normal Curve and Stanford-Binet IQ Scores.

The distribution of IQ scores approximates a normal curve. Most of the population falls in the middle range of scores. Notice that extremely high and extremely low scores are very rare. Slightly more than two-thirds of the scores fall between 84 and 116. Only about 1 in 50 individuals has an IQ above 132, and only about 1 in 50 individuals has an IQ below 68.

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Intelligence Tests: The Wechsler Scales

Another set of tests is the Wechsler scales, developed by David Wechsler.

The Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence—Fourth Edition (W P P S I-IV) tests children from 2 years 6 months to 7 years 3 months of age.

The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fifth Edition (W I S C-5) is for children and adolescents 6 to 16 years of age.

The Wechsler scales provide an overall IQ score but also yield several composite indexes.

Figure 2 Sample Subscales of the WISC-5.

Verbal Subscales

Similarities

A child must think logically and abstractly to answer a number of questions about how things might be similar.

Example: “In what way are a lion and a tiger alike?”

Comprehension

This subscale is designed to measure an individual’s judgment and common sense.

Example: “What is the advantage of keeping money in a bank?”

Nonverbal Subscales

Block Design

A child must assemble a set of multicolored blocks to match designs that the examiner shows.

Visual-motor coordination, perceptual organization, and the ability to visualize spatially are assessed.

Example: “Use the four blocks on the left to make the pattern on the right.”

The Wechsler includes 11 subscales—6 verbal and 5 nonverbal. Three of the subscales are shown here.

Source: Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children®, Fifth Edition (WISC-V), Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc., 2014.

The Use and Misuse of Intelligence Tests

Intelligence tests may predict longevity and school and work success, but many other factors contribute.

The single number can easily lead to false expectations.

Sweeping generalizations are too often made on the basis of an IQ score and can become self-fulfilling prophecies.

Intelligence tests should be used in conjunction with other information.

This would include developmental history, medical background, school performance, social competencies, family experiences, and so on.

Theories of Multiple Intelligences 1

According to Robert J. Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence, intelligence comes in three forms:

Analytical intelligence: ability to analyze, judge, evaluate, compare, and contrast.

Creative intelligence: ability to create, design, invent, originate, and imagine.

Practical intelligence: ability to use, apply, implement, and put ideas into practice.

Children with high analytic ability tend to be favored in conventional schooling.

Theories of Multiple Intelligences 2

Sternberg argues that wisdom is linked to both practical and academic intelligence.

Academic intelligence is a necessary but in many cases insufficient requirement for wisdom.

Practical knowledge about the realities of life is also needed.

Sternberg assesses wisdom by presenting problems that require solutions highlighting various intrapersonal, interpersonal, and contextual interests.

Theories of Multiple Intelligences 3

Howard Gardner says there are many types of intelligence, or frames of mind:

verbal skills, such as among journalists;

mathematical skills, such as among engineers;

spatial skills, such as about architects;

bodily-kinesthetic skills, such as among surgeons or dancers;

musical skills, such as among musicians and composers;

intrapersonal skills, such as among psychologists;

interpersonal skills, such as among teachers; and

naturalist skills, such as among farmers and ecologists

Theories of Multiple Intelligences: Entity Versus Incremental

Individuals who hold entity theories believe that intelligence is primarily something people are born with that does not change much over time.

Individuals who hold incremental theories believe that intelligence can grow over time and be improved through hard work.

Students who hold incremental theories of intelligence are more motivated to work hard.

Parents and teachers who hold incremental theories are more likely to praise effort rather than ability.

Theories of Multiple Intelligences: Emotional Intelligence 1

Sternberg’s and Gardner’s theories both include one or more categories related to understanding oneself and others and getting along in the world.

Emotional intelligence emphasizes these interpersonal, intrapersonal, and practical aspects—conceptualized by Peter Salovey and John Mayer as the ability to:

perceive and express emotion accurately and adaptively;

understand emotion and emotional knowledge;

use feelings to facilitate thought; and

manage emotions in oneself and others

Theories of Multiple Intelligences: Emotional Intelligence 2

Interventions to improve emotional intelligence that focus on how to regulate emotion have been found to:

reduce anger and other negative emotions; and

reduce physical and verbal aggression

For adolescents who have been cyberbullied, higher emotional intelligence plays a protective role.

Critics argue that emotional intelligence broadens the concept of intelligence too far to be useful and has not been adequately assessed and researched.

They also argue it is not a form of intelligence per se.

Theories of Multiple Intelligences: One or Many?

Critics of multiple intelligences argue the research base to support them has not yet been developed; and Gardner’s classification in particular seems arbitrary.

A number of psychologists continue to support the concept of g (general intelligence).

Some experts who argue for the existence of general intelligence conclude that individuals also have specific intellectual abilities.

The Neuroscience of Intelligence

Researchers now agree that intelligence is distributed widely across brain regions and depends on connectivity and coordination among different areas.

Recent work suggests that as much as 80 percent of the variance in general intelligence can be explained by the speed with which individuals process information.

As the technology to study the brain’s functioning continues to advance, new conclusions will be reached.

Figure 3 Intelligence and the Brain.

Researchers have found that a higher level of intelligence is linked to a distributed neural network in the frontal and parietal lobes. To a lesser extent than the frontal/parietal network, the temporal and occipital lobes, as well as the cerebellum, also have been found to have links to intelligence. The current consensus is that intelligence is likely to be distributed across brain regions rather than being localized in a specific region such as the frontal lobes.

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Photo: Takayuki/Shutterstock

The Influence of Heredity and Environment 1

Researchers agree that both heredity and environment influence intelligence.

Using genome-wide association studies, researchers have found that thousands of genetic sequences contribute to intelligence.

Both twin studies and adoption studies have been used to analyze the relative importance of heredity.

Figure 4 Correlation Between Intelligence Test Scores and Twin Status.

The graph represents a summary of research findings that have compared the intelligence test scores of identical and fraternal twins. An approximate 0.15 difference has been found, with a higher correlation for identical twins (0.75) and a lower correlation for fraternal twins (0.60).

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The Influence of Heredity and Environment 2

Heritability: the fraction of the variance in a population that is attributed to genetics.

A key point to keep in mind about heritability is that it refers to a specific group (population), not to individuals.

It says nothing about why a single individual has a certain intelligence, nor does it say anything about differences between groups.

Genes and the environment always work together.

The Influence of Heredity and Environment 3

The Flynn effect refers to a worldwide increase in scores over a relatively short amount of time.

The increase may be due to vastly greater access to information and to generally increasing levels of education.

Factors such as prenatal and postnatal nutrition may also be related.

Researchers, educators, and policy makers are interested in manipulating the early environment of children who are at risk for impoverished intelligence.

Figure 5 The Increase in IQ Scores from 1932 to 1997.

As measured by the Stanford-Binet intelligence test, American children seem to be getting smarter. Scores of a group tested in 1932 fell along a bell-shaped curve with half below 100 and half above. Studies show that if children took that same test today, half would score above 120 on the 1932 scale. Very few of them would score in the “intellectually deficient” range on the left side, and about one-fourth would rank in the “very superior” range.

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Group Comparisons 1

Cross-cultural comparisons show that cultures vary in what it means to be intelligent.

Western cultures emphasize reasoning and thinking skills.

Individuals can demonstrate intellectual skills in different ways.

Cultural bias is an issue in testing.

Early intelligence tests favored people from urban environments, middle socioeconomic status, and White rather than African American ethnicity.

Those who do not speak standard English are at a disadvantage in understanding questions in standard English.

Group Comparisons 2

Researchers have developed culture-fair tests, which are designed to avoid cultural bias.

One type includes questions familiar to people from all socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds.

The second type contains no verbal questions.

Group Comparisons 3

Sometimes intelligence tests are used to compare one demographic group with another.

Average scores are being compared.

Group averages sometimes favor one group.

For example, when males outperform females on math tests, or when European Americans outperform African Americans.

One potential influence on test performance is stereotype threat—the anxiety that one’s behavior might confirm a negative stereotype about one’s group.

The Development of Intelligence: Tests of Infant Intelligence 1

Tests of infant intelligence are less verbal and contain elements related to perceptual-motor development and social interaction.

Arnold Gesell (1934) developed a measure that helped sort out typically developing from atypically developing babies.

The current version of the Gesell test has four categories of behavior: motor, language, adaptive, and personal-social.

The developmental quotient (DQ) combines subscores in these categories to provide an overall score.

The Development of Intelligence: Tests of Infant Intelligence 2

The widely used Bayley-III Scales of Infant Development were developed by Nancy Bayley (1969) to assess behavior and predict later development.

The current version (Bayley-III) has five scales: cognitive, language, motor, socioemotional, and adaptive.

Several studies have found that measures of intelligence in infancy are correlated with measures of intelligence later in childhood.

Some important changes in cognitive development occur after infancy, however.

Stability and Change in Intelligence Through Adolescence

Intelligence test scores can fluctuate dramatically across the childhood years.

Children are adaptive—their intelligence changes but remains connected with earlier points in development.

Intellectual Disability 1

Intellectual disability and intellectual giftedness are the extremes of intelligence.

Intellectual disability is a condition of limited mental ability in which the individual:

has a low IQ, usually below 70 on a traditional test;

has difficulty adapting to everyday life; and

first exhibits these characteristics by age 18

Figure 6 Classification of Intellectual Disability Based on IQ

The following content is arranged like a table.

Type of Intellectual Disability	IQ Range	Percentage
Mild	55 to 70	89
Moderate	40 to 54	6
Severe	25 to 39	4
Profound	Below 25	1

Intellectual Disability 2

Organic intellectual disability: a genetic disorder or lower level of intelligence due to brain damage.

Down syndrome, abnormality of the X chromosome, prenatal malformation, metabolic disorders, and brain diseases.

Most have IQs between 0 and 50.

Cultural-familial intellectual disability: cases with no evidence of organic brain damage.

Often emerge from below-average intellectual environments.

Most have IQs between 55 and 70.

Disability is usually not noticeable in adulthood.

Giftedness 1

Those who are gifted have high intelligence and/or superior talent of some kind.

An IQ of 130 is often used as the low threshold.

Approximately 6 percent to 10 percent of U.S. students are gifted.

Estimates focus more on children who are gifted intellectually and academically.

They often fail to include those who are gifted in creative thinking or the visual and performing arts.

In general, no connection between giftedness and mental disorder has been found.

Giftedness 2

Three criteria characterize gifted children:

precocity;

marching to their own drummer; and

a passion to master

Giftedness is a product of both heredity and environment.

Individuals who are gifted often demonstrate special abilities from an early age, before formal training.

Individuals with world-class status in their gifted domain all report strong family support and years of training and practice.

Giftedness 3

Highly gifted individuals are not typically gifted in many domains.

Domains of giftedness usually emerge in childhood.

Many gifted children do not become gifted and highly creative adults.

Gifted children who are insufficiently challenged can become disruptive, skip classes, and lose interest.

Too often, they are socially isolated and underchallenged.

Giftedness 4

Black American, Latino, and Native American children are underrepresented in gifted programs.

Lower test scores may be due to test bias and fewer opportunities to develop language skills such as vocabulary and comprehension.

Creativity 1

Creativity is the ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and to come up with unique solutions to problems.

Intelligence and creativity are not the same thing.

Creativity requires divergent thinking, which produces many answers to the same question.

Conventional intelligence tests measure convergent thinking, in which there is only one correct answer.

Creativity 2

Creative thinking appears to be declining.

Among the likely causes in the United States are the number of hours spent watching TV, engaging with social media, and playing video games; and a lack of emphasis on creative thinking in schools.

Review

Explain the concept of intelligence.

Discuss the development of intelligence.

Describe the characteristics of intellectual disability, giftedness, and creativity.

End of Main Content

Because learning changes everything.®

www.mheducation.com

Accessibility Content: Text Alternatives for Images

Figure 1 The Normal Curve and Stanford-Binet IQ Scores. - Text Alternative

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The horizontal axis represents the cumulative percentages, ranging from 0.1 to 99.9 rounded as 2 to 98 and Stanford-Bennet IQs, ranging from 55 to 145 in increments of 15. The percent of cases under the normal curve are as follows: 0.13, 2.14, 13.59, 34.13, 34.13, 13.59, 2.14, and 0.13.

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Figure 3 Intelligence and the Brain. - Text Alternative

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The frontal lobe is the anterior region, and the occipital lobe is at the posterior region, the parietal lobe and temporal lobe are in the middle region occupying the upper and the lower region, respectively.

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Figure 4 Correlation Between Intelligence Test Scores and Twin Status. - Text Alternative

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The horizontal axis shows the identical twins and fraternal twins. The vertical axis represents the similarity of intelligence (correlation), ranging from 0 to 0.8 in increments of 0.1. The data are as follows: identical twins, 0.75; fraternal twins, 0.6.

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Figure 5 The Increase in IQ Scores from 1932 to 1997. - Text Alternative

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The horizontal line shows the IQ scores ranging from 55 through 160. The curve of 19 32 is ranging from 57 through 144. The initial scores from 57 through 70 is highlighted and labeled intellectually deficient, and the high scores from 130 through 163 is highlighted and labeled intellectually very superior. The average score of 100 is displayed as the peak of the curve of 19 32. The second curve of 19 97 is ranging from 77 through 163. The average score of 120 is displayed as the peak of the curve of 19 97.

help w assign due in 48 hours

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