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Running Head: SOCIAL SUPPORT, SELF-EFFICACY & PHYSICAL FITNESS 1

SOCIAL SUPPORT, SELF-EFFICACY & PHYSICAL FITNESS 2

The Impact of Social Support and Self-Efficacy on Physical Fitness

in College Students

Old Dominion University

Abstract

The research being conducted is to examine the relationship that self-efficacy and social support has on good physical fitness levels on college students in America. It is expected that a positive relationship will be found among self-efficacy and physical fitness. Specifically, as self-efficacy scores increase levels of physical fitness will also increase. It is also expected that a positive relationship will exist between social support and physical fitness. Specifically, as social support scores increase so will levels of physical fitness. It is expected that both self-efficacy and social support will show statistically significant relationships positive relationships with physical fitness. Data will be pulled from college students that attend Old Dominion University and are currently enrolled in Psychology. Research will be conducted by using a correlation in SPSS.

The Impact of Social Support, Self-Efficacy on Physical Fitness

in College Students

Physical fitness levels among college students in the United States have declined in recent years. It is reported that almost half of all U.S. college students do not engage in regular moderate or vigorous physical activity, and approximately 35 percent are labeled as overweight by self-reports (Pribis, Burtnack, Mckenzie, & Thayer, 2010). There is an alarming decline in physical activity in college students when compared to high school students and this rate has continued to decline in the past decade (Pribis, Burtnack, Mckenzie, & Thayer, 2010). Regular physical activity has shown to be a key factor for good physical fitness and overall health. This is shown with regular physical activity being associated with a decreased risk of heart-disease, obesity, and cancer, as well as lower levels of stress and high overall psychological well-being (Pribis, Burtnack, Mckenzie, & Thayer, 2010). College students are especially vulnerable to unhealthy lifestyles because they are also more likely to engage in unhealthy behaviors such as binge drinking and smoking (Sidman, D'Abundo, & Hritz, 2009). The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between social support, self-efficacy, and physical fitness.

Social Support

Social support has been shown to predict a number of healthy behaviors, including higher physical fitness levels. Social support can be defined as having strong emotional bonds with either family or peers, and having those people support and encourage a healthy lifestyle and good physical fitness (King, Tergerson, & Wilson, 2008). A positive association between social support and physical fitness has been found in both adolescents and adults in previous studies that should be discussed further (King, Tergerson, & Wilson, 2008; Reifman, & Dunkel-Schetter, 1990).

An example of a positive correlation between social support and good physical fitness would be a study conducted in Cincinnati, Ohio in 2008. This study included 535 high school participants that included both male and female students. The results concluded that those who had a friend or parent who encouraged being physically active were significantly more likely to be more physically active and saw more benefits in being physically fit than those who did not. This is an important conclusion because it shows that social support from both parents and peers on physical fitness is important to older adolescents (King, Tergerson, & Wilson, 2008).

The next study examined 161 undergraduate students and evaluated social support to well-being, with one of the factors measured being physical health and fitness. The results were gathered by phone interviews with these college students with various rating scales on physical health and social support. The results showed that the more often a student participated in activities with other students, the more likely they reported to be in better health and overall more physically fit. Frequency of doing things with other students showed to be an important role of social support and was positively related with feeling physically healthy and in good shape. This conclusion is highly impactful because it proves that social support is an important factor in higher physical fitness levels in college students (Reifman & Dunkel-Schetter, 1990).

Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy can be defined as the belief in one’s ability to successfully complete a challenge or overcome an obstacle. In terms of relating this to physical fitness, it should be noted that this will pertain to a person’s belief in their capabilities to complete bouts of physical activity for the purpose of being physically fit (Robbins et al. 2004).

A study was done that included 168 adolescent participants that measured their self-efficiency levels and compared them to perceived exertion during physical activity. This an important distinction because a higher level of perceived exertion is likely to discourage physical activity and subsequently lower physical fitness levels. This test was done by rating participants levels of self-efficacy pre-activity and measuring them with post-activity perceived exertion levels. The results showed that low self-efficacy pre-activity resulted in higher exertion rates post-activity and therefore discouraged future physical fitness. The study also found that higher self-efficacy scores post-exercise encouraged regular physically activity and overall higher physical fitness levels. These results support the idea of improving self-efficacy to promote higher levels of physical fitness (Robbins et al. 2004)

The next study evaluated physical self-efficacy and perceived wellness among college students. The study surveyed 611 undergraduate students who were evaluated one their personal exercise self-efficacy levels and perceived wellness. One of the aspects that was highlighted inside of the perceived wellness factor was overall physical wellness, which we could infer would be related to physical fitness levels. The results of the study showed that a higher self-efficacy score was highly associated with overall wellness levels, especially physical wellness. Students highlighted that sticking to a program of regular physical activity was highly beneficial to staying physically well, which only backs up the claim that regular physical activity is crucial to being physically fit. This result is important to note because it shows that self-efficacy is positively associated with being physically fit (Sidman, D'Abundo, & Hritz, 2009).

Social Support & Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy and social support are both psychosocial correlates to regular physical activity and high physical fitness levels (Pis, Loveland-Cherry, & Carol, 2006). Self-efficacy can be defined as a person’s belief in their capabilities to take the necessary steps to be physically fit, and social support can be described by the perceived support from others to be physically fit (Pis, Loveland-Cherry, & Carol, 2006).

The first study done on both social support and self-efficacy was done by administering questionnaires to 112 adolescent participants in six different schools. The study showed that those with higher levels of self-efficacy showed substantially higher levels of physical activity. This study also showed statistically significant positive relationship between self-efficacy and social support. This means that those with higher self-efficacy also showed signs of higher social support. The results show that both self-efficacy and social support not only relate to physical fitness, but also have a positive relationship with each other (Pis, Loveland-Cherry, & Carol, 2006). 

A study in southwest Virginia was also conducted to test the effects of social support and self-efficacy on physical fitness. 999 participants were recruited from 14 church programs and answered surveys in order to gather the results. The research found that social support was the biggest factor that led to good self-regulation behaviors, which was the key aspect when discussing high levels of physical fitness. Self-efficacy was also shown to be positively associated with these behaviors, but it was not as large of a factor in this study compared to social support. This conclusion is important to note because it shows that both self-efficacy and social support are both important factors to physical fitness. It is also interesting to note that this study ranks the two with social support playing a bigger role (Anderson, Wojcik, Winett, & Williams, 2006).

Conclusion

The purpose of this paper is to determine the relationship that self-efficacy and social support has on physical fitness in college students. It has been shown through previous research that self-efficacy and social support have been positively associated with physical activity and wellness in a variety of populations. It has also been shown that these factors show signs of having a positive relationship with each other and may vary in levels of importance to physical fitness (Pis, Loveland-Cherry, & Carol, 2006). Based on this information, it is expected that higher levels of self-efficacy will be positively associated with higher levels of physical fitness. We also expect to find higher levels of social support to be related with higher levels of physical fitness among college students.

Method

Participants

Participants from this study will be five students chosen at random from the psychology department at Old Dominion University. The demographics of these students should match the demographics of students enrolled at Old Dominion University. Fifty-six percent of Old Dominion students identify as female, and 44% percent identify as male. The enrolled student population at Old Dominion University has 47.7% that identify as White, 27.4% that identify as Black or African American, 7.91% that identify as Hispanic or Latino, 6.16% that identify Two or More Races, 4.36% that identify as Asian, 0.299% that identify as Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islanders, and 0.275% that identify as American Indian or Alaska Native. This includes both full-time and part-time students (Old Dominion University. 2018).

Students who choose to participate in this study will be given no incentive or benefits for participation and will be provided with written consent before participation. Participation will be both anonymous and voluntary.

Materials

The materials that will be used in this study come in the form of questionnaires, that will be used to assess levels of self-efficacy, social support, and physical fitness.

Self-Efficacy . The material used for self-efficacy comes from Schwarzer & Jerusalem’s Generalized Self-Efficacy scale published in 1995. There is a total of ten questions, and the total score is determined by finding the sum of all answers. Sum totals range from 10 to 40, with a higher score indicating more self-efficacy. An example of a question that will be asked to determine self-efficacy levels from this questionnaire will be: “I can always manage to solve difficult problems if I try hard enough”. Response choices for this question range from 1 (not at all true) to 4 (exactly true). Another question that will be used will be: “Thanks to my resourcefulness, I know how to handle unforeseen situations”. Response choices for this question range from 1 (not at all true) to 4 (exactly true). The last example question from the questionnaire that will be used is: “I can usually handle whatever comes my way”. Response choices for this question range from 1 (not at all true) to 4 (exactly true). The survey questions have been proven to demonstrate adequate internal consistency reliability for self-efficacy (α = 0.76 – 0.90; Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995).

Social Support . The material used for social support comes from Zimet et al’s Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support made in 2016. There is a total of 12 questions, and the total score is determined by finding the sum of all answers and then dividing by 12. Sum totals range from 1 to 7, with a higher score indicating more perceived social support. An example of a question that will be asked to determine social support levels from this questionnaire will be: “There is a special person who is around when I am in need”. Response choices for this question range from 1 (very strongly disagree) to 7 (very strongly agree). A second example that will be asked in this questionnaire is: “I get the emotional help & support I need from my family”. Response choices for this question range from 1 (very strongly disagree) to 7 (very strongly agree). The last example question from this questionnaire is: “My family is willing to help me make decisions”. Response choices for this question range from 1 (very strongly disagree) to 7 (very strongly agree). MSPSS has shown through research to have good internal and test–retest reliability as well as moderate construct validity (α = 0.88; Zimet et al., 1988).

Physical Fitness . The material used for physical fitness comes from Ortega et al’s International Fitness Scale produced in 2011. There is a total of five questions, and the total score is determined by adding the scores of all questions. Sum totals range from 5 to 25, with a higher score indicating a higher level of physical fitness. The first question asked to assess physical fitness is “My general physical fitness is:”. Response choices for this question range from 1 (very poor) to 5 (very good). The next question that is asked is “My cardiorespiratory fitness (capacity to do exercise, for instance long running) is:”. Response choices for this question range from 1 (very poor) to 5 (very good). The next question, “My muscular strength is:” will be asked with response choices for this question ranging from 1 (very poor) to 5 (very good). The next assessment “My speed/agility is:” will be asked with response choices that range from 1 (very poor) to 5 (very good). The final question asked is “My flexibility is:” with response choices ranging from 1 (very poor) to 5 (very good). Reliability and validity of this study has been proven to show positive results with the test-retest reliability of this study showing perfect agreement in 65% of people and perfect-acceptable agreement in 97% (α = 0.54 – 0.65; Ortega et al., 2011).

Procedure

Participants chosen to take part in the study will first be provided with a written consent form made by the researchers before participation. Participation will be both anonymous and voluntary. Participants who choose to continue will then be given a self-report survey for self-efficacy and social support. These students will then be given a survey for physical fitness after completion of the first two. They will have the class period time of 1 hour to complete all three surveys. The recorded responses will be recorded in written form on the surveys to evaluate the sums of each questionnaire. Participants will fill out a demographics survey before being debriefed and exiting the experiment.

Proposed Analysis

Descriptive Statistics

After collecting all the data, it will be examined using descriptive statistics. Also, the distribution of the data will be checked for skewness and kurtosis.

Correlation

A sample correlation will be performed in SPSS to analyze the relationship between self-efficacy and physical fitness, and social support and physical fitness. It is expected that a positive relationship will be found among self-efficacy and physical fitness. Specifically, as self-efficacy scores increase levels of physical fitness will also increase. It is also expected that a positive relationship will exist between social support and physical fitness. Specifically, as social support scores increase so will levels of physical fitness.

References

Anderson, E., Wojcik, J., Winett, R., & Williams, D. (2006). Social–cognitive determinants of physical activity: The influence of social support, self-efficacy, outcome expectations, and self-regulation among participants in a church-based health promotion study. Health Psychology, 25, 510-520.

Francisco B Ortega, Jonatan R Ruiz, Vanesa España-Romero, Germán Vicente-Rodriguez, David Martínez-Gómez, Yannis Manios, Laurent Béghin, Dénes Molnar, Kurt Widhalm, Luis A Moreno, Michael Sjöström, Manuel J Castillo, (2011). The International fitness scale (IFIS): Usefulness of self-reported fitness in youth. International Journal of Epidemiology, 40, 701–711, https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyr039

King, K., Tergerson, J., & Wilson, B. (2008). Effect of social support on adolescents' perceptions of and engagement in physical activity. Journal of Physical Activity & Health, 5, 374-384.

Old Dominion University. (2018). Retrieved from https://datausa.io/profile/university/old-dominion-university#admissions

Pis, M., Loveland-Cherry, & Carol J. (2006). Physical Activity Social Support, Self -efficacy, and Self-definition in Adolescents: A Correlational Cross-sectional Comparative Study, ProQuest dissertations and theses.

Pribis, P., Burtnack, C. A., Mckenzie, S. O., & Thayer, J. (2010). Trends in body fat, body mass index and physical fitness among male and female college students. Nutrients, 2, 1075–1085. doi: 10.3390/nu2101075

Reifman, A., & Dunkel-Schetter, C. (1990). Stress, structural social support, and well-being in university students. Journal of American College Health, 38, 271-277.

Robbins, L., Pender, N., Ronis, D., Kazanis, A., & Pis, M. (2004). Physical activity, self‐efficacy, and perceived exertion among adolescents. Research in Nursing & Health, 27, 435-446.

Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized Self-Efficacy scale. In J. Weinman, S. Wright, & M. Johnston, Measures in health psychology: A user’s portfolio. Causal and control beliefs (pp. 35-37). Windsor, UK: NFER-NELSON.

Sidman, C. L., D'Abundo, M. L., & Hritz, N. (2009). Exercise self-efficacy and perceived wellness among college students in a basic studies course. International Electronic Journal of Health Education, 12, 162-174.

Zimet, G. D., Dahlem, N. W., Zimet, S. G., & Farley, G. K. (1988). The multidimensional scale of perceived social support. Journal of personality assessment, 52, 30-41.

Appendix A

Demographic Questions for Survey

1. What is your age?

a. 18-25

b. 25-30

c. 30-35

d. 35 or older

2. Please specify your ethnicity:

a. Nonresident Alien

b. Hispanics of any race

c. American Indian or Alaska Native

d. Asian

e. Black or African American

f. Native Hawaiian or Other Pacific Islander

g. White

h. Two or more races

i. Race and Ethnicity Unknown

j. Other(please specify)

k. Prefer not to respond

3. What is your gender?

a. Male

b. Female

c. Transgender

d. Other

e. Prefer not to respond

4. What is your enrollment status?

a. Part-time

b. Full-time

5. What is your class standing?

a. Freshman

b. Sophomore

c. Junior

d. Senior

e. Masters/Doctoral

f. Professional Student

g. Continuing Education Student

h. Non-degree seeking

6. How many hours do you work for pay?

a. Less than 5

b. 5-10

c. 10-20

d. 20-30

e. 30-40

f. 40+

7. What is your marital status?

a. Single

b. In a relationship

c. Married

d. Separated

e. Divorced

f. Widowed

8. Are you involved in any university sponsored sports team?

a. Yes

b. No

Appendix B

IFiS

INTERNATIONAL FITNESS SCALE

It is important that you do this test by yourself without taking into account the answers or opinion from other persons. Your answer is only useful for the progress of science and medicine. Please answer all the questions and do not leave any blank. Mark only one answer per question, and more important: be sincere. Thank you for your cooperation.

NAME: ___________________________________________ DATE (dd-mm-yy): _____________

Please, think about your current level of physical fitness (compared with your friends) and choose the most appropriate answer.

My general physical fitness is:

Very poor (1)

□

Poor (2)

□

Average (3)

□

Good (4)

□

Very good (5)

□

My cardiorespiratory fitness (capacity to do exercise, for instance long running) is:

Very poor (1)	□
Poor (2)	□
Average (3)	□
Good (4)	□
Very good (5)	□
My muscular strength is:
Very poor (1)	□
Poor (2)	□
Average (3)	□
Good (4)	□
Very good (5)	□
My speed / agility is:
Very poor (1)	□
Poor (2)	□
Average (3)	□
Good (4)	□
Very good (5)	□
My flexibility is:
Very poor (1)	□
Poor (2)	□
Average (3)	□
Good (4)	□
Very good (5)	□

IFIS has been developed by the PROFITH research group, Granada, Spain. Versions of IFIS in different languages and for different age groups are available at: http://profith.ugr.es/IFIS IFIS was originally design and validated under the umbrella of the HELENA study, original reference: Ortega et al. The International Fitness Scale (IFIS): usefulness of self-reported fitness in youth. Int J Epidemiol 2011;40:701-1. IFIS has also been validated in adults: Ortega et al. Scand J Med Sci Sports, 2013;23:749-57; in children: Sanchez-Lopez et al. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2015;25:543-51;and in women with fibromyalgia: Alvarez-Gallardo et al. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2016;97:395-404.

Appendix C

General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE)

About: This scale is a self-report measure of self-efficacy.

Items: 10

Reliability:

Internal reliability for GSE = Cronbach’s alphas between .76 and .90

Validity:

The General Self-Efficacy Scale is correlated to emotion, optimism, work satisfaction. Negative coefficients were found for depression, stress, health complaints, burnout, and anxiety.

Scoring:

	Not at all	Hardly true	Moderately	Exactly true
	true		true
All questions	1	2	3	4

The total score is calculated by finding the sum of the all items. For the GSE, the total score ranges between 10 and 40, with a higher score indicating more self-efficacy.

References:

Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized Self-Efficacy scale. In J. Weinman, S. Wright, & M. Johnston, Measures in health psychology: A user’s portfolio. Causal and control beliefs (pp. 35-37). Windsor, UK: NFER-NELSON.

General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSE)

					Not at		Hardly		Moderately		Exactly
					all true		true		true		true
1.	I can always manage to solve		□		□		□		□
difficult problems if I try hard
enough
	2.	If someone opposes me, I can			□		□		□		□
	find the means and ways to get
	what I want.
3.	It is easy for me to stick to my		□		□		□		□
aims and accomplish my goals.
	4.	I am confident that I could deal			□		□		□		□
	efficiently with unexpected events.
5. Thanks to my resourcefulness, I		□		□		□		□
know how to handle unforeseen
situations.
	6.	I can solve most problems if I			□		□		□		□
	invest the necessary effort.
7.	I can remain calm when facing		□		□		□		□
difficulties because I can rely on
my coping abilities.
	8.	When I am confronted with a			□		□		□		□
	problem, I can usually find several
	solutions.
9.	If I am in trouble, I can usually		□		□		□		□
think of a solution
	10. I can usually handle whatever			□		□		□		□
	comes my way.

Appendix D

Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support

Instructions: We are interested in how you feel about the following statements. Read each statement carefully. Indicate how you feel about each statement.

Circle the “1” if you Very Strongly Disagree

Circle the “2” if you Strongly Disagree

Circle the “3” if you Mildly Disagree

Circle the “4” if you are Neutral

Circle the “5” if you Mildly Agree

Circle the “6” if you Strongly Agree

Circle the “7” if you Very Strongly Agree

Very					Very
Strongly	Strongly	Mildly	Mildly	Strongly	Strongly
Disagree	Disagree	Disagree	Neutral Agree	Agree	Agree

1. There is a special person who

is around when I am in need.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1. There is a special person with

	whom I can share joys and sorrows.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
3.	My family really tries to help me.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
4.	I get the emotional help & support
	I need from my family.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
5.	I have a special person who is
	a real source of comfort to me.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
6.	My friends really try to help me.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
7.	I can count on my friends when
	things go wrong.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7

1. I can talk about my problems with

my family.

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

1. I have friends with whom I can

	share my joys and sorrows.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
10.	There is a special person in my
	life who cares about my feelings.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
11.	My family is willing to help me
	make decisions.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7
12.	I can talk about my problems with
	my friends.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7