Research questions

Running head: The Effects of project-based learning 1

The Effects of project-based learning 2

The Effects of Project-Based Learning on Student Engagement and Motivation

Student’s Name

Liberty University

Abstract

Benjamin Franklin once said, “Tell me and I forget. Teach me and I remember. Involve me and I learn.” Project-based learning is a student-centered instructional strategy aimed at involving students in authentic learning experiences. Project-based learning is a constructivist approach in which students work cooperatively to identify, investigate, and solve a problem, presenting their findings through various media. Teachers act as facilitators, guiding students toward their learning goals as necessary. While many constructivist theorists were influenced by naturalism, constructivism-based instructional strategies such as project-based learning are germane in the context of a Christian worldview. The purpose of this paper is to determine if the research has shown significant differences in student engagement and motivation when project-based learning is implemented in K-12 schools.

The world is continuously changing during the information and technology age, and this phenomenon indubitably has implications for education. Standardized testing has also significantly impacted the profession. While legislation such as the No Child Left Behind Act was developed with good intentions, the required standardized testing has caused an undesirable shift in education. Many teachers feeling pressure to “teach to the test” resort to traditional methods of teaching such as lecture and rote memorization. Nonetheless, it is now more essential than ever that students develop the ability to compete in the workplace driven by a global market, acquiring skills such as working well with others, communicating effectively, and analyzing and solving real-world problems. This may explain why many researchers, administrators, and educators are considering alternative methods of teaching such as project-based instruction. Project-based learning is considered a constructivist style teaching method, and it has been described as “a bridge between knowledge and action” (Baser, Ozden, & Karaarslan, 2017, p. 131). The intended purpose of project-based instruction is to shift the focus of education away from less meaningful recitation of factual knowledge to authentic learning experiences. Benjamin Franklin once said, “Tell me and I forget. Teach me and I remember. Involve me and I learn.” Project-based learning may be efficacious for other reasons as well, such as student engagement and motivation. The purpose of this paper is to determine if research has shown significant differences in student engagement and motivation when project-based learning is implemented in K-12 schools.

Review of the Literature

Whether it’s intentional or not, teachers create a classroom environment that is either teacher-centered or student-centered. Teacher-centered classrooms are often focused on lecture with minimal student involvement. In contrast, project-based learning strategies are student-centered; in this case, students work on projects while the teacher gives them guidance, feedback, and encouragement. Project-based instruction is similar to problem-based instruction, and their names are often used interchangeably. According to Lam, Cheng, and William (2009), in this student-centered strategy, the students should play an active role in their learning, working in groups to investigate problems; the teacher should act as a facilitator, modeling and coaching the students toward the learning goals. Han, Capraro, and Capraro (2016) further explain project-based learning as a holistic approach in which students construct their own knowledge through tasks that include six processes: “problem and constraints identification, research, ideation, analysis of ideas, testing and refinement, and communication and metacognition” (p. 159). Hugerat (2016) described the major traits that should characterize project-based assignments: (a) curriculum-minded, (b) question- or problem-focused, (c) student driven, and (d) realistic. Teachers planning for project-based learning should choose a worthy topic, relate the topic to real-life context, establish generative questions, and determine the scope and design of the project (Tobias, Campbell, & Greco, 2015). Project-based learning is used in an effort to provide authentic learning experiences.

According to Hill (2014), students are more likely to learn when the curriculum is connected to the real-world rather than being taught abstract, intangible concepts. Furthermore, research has shown that many students are tactical or kinesthetic learners, and the hands-on nature of project-based learning may be effectual for these students. Hill described an excellent example of project-based learning in which eighth-grade students were preparing a tour for their fictional band. Through this assignment, the teacher was able to integrate subjects and foster engagement among the students, connecting the learning objectives to a real-world scenario. For example, the students were cultivating their communication skills by formulating a written plan for the tour, while also nurturing their math skills with real-world problems such as the amount and price of gas for the tour. While ratios may not be intriguing to students in general, calculating the cost of gasoline per mile for a fictional band’s tour is both engaging and meaningful. Furthermore, students in this classroom were actively engaged with technology, using various mediums to present their plans such as PowerPoint, blogs, and online articles. The students participating in this project-based assignment described it as a fun and exhilarating project in which they used “problem solving, math, geography, research, and presentation skills in a way that just seemed like fantasy” (Hill, 2014, p. 457).

Over the last several decades, the effects of project-based learning have been well researched. Many of these studies have concentrated on how project-based learning affects academic achievement, and most have found positive results. For example, Han et al. (2016) found that Hispanic students demonstrated higher achievement when working in project-based classrooms than more traditional classrooms. This particular study also demonstrates the usefulness of project-based learning across cultural lines. Other studies, however, have focused on qualitative effects of project-based learning, including its effect on student engagement and motivation. For example, in a study by Kaldi, Filippatou, and Govaris (2011) that included 70 primary students participating in a 12-week project-based learning course, the students increased their knowledge about the topic, considered their work and the learning experience to be valuable, developed a greater sense of self-efficacy, and created a stronger classroom community through co-operative work. Similarly, Holmes and Hwang (2016) found that students participating in project-based learning reported higher intrinsic motivation and self-efficacy, exhibited a greater appreciation for working in collaboration with peers, felt more control over their own learning, developed better study skills, spent more time studying, were more likely to seek assistance, and began setting goals for themselves while self-regulating their learning to achieve their goals. Hugerat (2016) reported similar results. Students participating in his study reported a greater sense of enjoyment, perceived that the teacher was more supportive, developed a better relationship with the teacher, experienced less stress, displayed a better attitude, and felt more motivated.

Studies describing the firsthand accounts from teachers who are actively using project-based learning also point to its effectiveness. Teachers who participated in a study by Tamin and Grant (2013) reported four ways in which they believe project-based learning is advantageous. Firstly, it supports the learning process because students were more engaged, worked harder, presented higher quality work, and acquired important skills such as time management and research methods. Successfully teaching such valuable life skills as time management is generally unachievable in a teacher-centered classroom that does not afford the students the opportunities they receive in student-centered classrooms. Secondly, the teachers documented that project-based learning enhances the students’ creativity. Project-based learning often gives students the opportunity to express their learning creatively through various media, an opportunity they most likely would not have in a teacher-centered classroom. Thirdly, students working in project-based learning style classrooms were more motivated and engaged, had a better attitude toward learning, and took ownership and pride in their work. Finally, project-based learning helped students learn important collaboration skills such as communication and conflict resolution. Furthering this notion, Lam et al. (2009) found a positive correlation between teacher intrinsic motivation and student intrinsic motivation during project-based learning. Overwhelmingly, research seems to indicate that there are positive effects of project-based learning on motivation and student engagement.

While the research is overall overtly favorable to project-based instruction, the research also reveals potential problems for teachers seeking to implement it successfully. For example, in a study by Baser et al. (2017), five out of thirteen participating student groups reported experiencing conflicts within the collaborative groups and an especially heavy workload. A heavy workload may be attributable to what Lee, Huh, and Reigeluth (2015) described as “social loafing,” (p. 565) a term used to describe students being off task and socializing rather than performing their responsibilities. Teachers may be able to help students avoid these potential problems by having regular group meetings to discuss any conflicts and providing a pacing guide for the completion of tasks. Other potential issues include the following: (a) state and nationally required standards and state testing are not always conducive to project-based learning; (b) preparing project-based assignments usually necessitates a significant amount of planning and preparation; (c) there is a tendency for students to focus on completing tasks rather than acquiring knowledge associated with the tasks; and (d) there may be a need for more professional development pertaining to project-based instructional techniques.

Learning Theory Association

Constructivism has been defined as “a psychological and philosophical perspective contending that individuals form and construct much of what they learn and understand” (Schunk, 2012, p. 296). Several prominent researchers and theorists have been strongly influenced by constructivism or contributed to the constructivism philosophy including Vygotsky, Bruner, and Piaget. Many constructivist-style strategies are conducive to project-based instruction such as peer-assisted learning, peer tutoring, cooperative learning, discovery learning, and inquiry teaching. In fact, project-based learning itself is innately connected to constructivism (Grant, 2011). According to Kokotsaki, Menzies, and Wiggins (2016) “project-based learning (PBL) is a student-centered form of instruction which is based on three constructivist principles: learning is context-specific, learners are involved actively in the learning process, and they achieve their goals through social interactions and the sharing of knowledge and understanding” (p. 267).

Schunk (2012) identified several key constructivism-related concepts including that people develop knowledge for themselves, teachers should focus on teaching with hands-on experiences and social interactions, learning involves processing, translating, and internalizing one’s environment, and cognitive processes are physically and socially situated. Project-based instruction, when implemented appropriately, is characterized by each of these constructivist traits. For example, project-based learning is built on the premise of students working together on hands-on projects. Some teachers and researchers suggest assigning a specific role to each student, similar to roles they will experience as adults in a professional setting such as a team leader or a reporter. Constructivists believe students can learn from each other in this type of socially driven experience. In reference to processing, translating, and internalizing the situation, project-based learning is built on the principle of constructing knowledge through the process. Some researchers and theorists have even indicated that the process of formative activities such as project-based learning is just as important, or more important, than the product, because it is during the process that students construct knowledge and develop skills (Dekker & Feijs, 2005).

Key Terms

Project-based Learning

Project-based learning can be defined as “a systematic teaching method that engages students

in learning knowledge and skills through an extended inquiry process structured around complex, authentic questions and carefully designed projects and tasks” (Lee, Moran, Drake, & Blackwell, 2014, p. 19).

Student Engagement

Student engagement can be described as “how involved or interested students appear to be in their learning and how connected they are to their classes, their institutions, and each other” (Axelson & Flick, 2010, p. 38).

Motivation

Schunk (2012) defines motivation as “the process of instigating and sustaining goal-directed behavior” (p. 341).

Constructivism

Constructivism has been defined as “a psychological and philosophical perspective contending that individuals form and construct much of what they learn and understand” (Schunk, 2012, p. 296).

Gaps in the Research

As stated previously, project-based learning and instruction has been researched thoroughly for several decades. Nonetheless, there are still gaps in the research that need to be addressed with further research. For example, in a quasi-experimental study by Han et al. (2016), students considered at-risk of dropping out or failing did not demonstrate higher achievement when participating in project-based learning than other more traditional classroom settings. This seems contrary to the results of other studies which have indicated that low-performing students often benefit substantially from project-based learning, and therefore, more research is desirable. The same study showed promising results that project-based learning may support students with low-level social skills learning social skills from other students with quality, higher-level social skills. Therefore, project-based learning may be of value for students with disabilities that affect their social abilities, such as Autism and Asperger’s syndrome. This is also a topic that needs further exploration.

A Biblical Worldview

As stated previously, several prominent researchers and theorists have been strongly influenced by constructivism or contributed to the constructivism philosophy including Vygotsky, Bruner, and Piaget. In terms of worldview, Vygotsky (1896-1934), a Russian born Marxist, was strongly influenced by Naturalism. In line with The Humanist Manifesto II, published in 1873, the Naturalism worldview does not allow for the existence of God or any supernatural power. Furthermore, human beings are considered to simply be complex, evolutional machines made of matter, the same type of matter that makes up all objects in the universe, according to naturalists (Sire, 2009). Sadly, naturalism purports that humans no longer exist after death (Sire, 2009). Ethics are a personal matter, yet naturalism recognizes an innate sense of moral values (Sire, 2009). Particularly in the early twentieth century, both secular humanism and Marxism came to be well-known forms of Naturalism (Sire, 2009).

Marxism, which originated from the works of Karl Marx, influenced a large portion of the globe during the first half of the twentieth century. Marx believed that capitalism would not last and would eventually lead to the working class revolting against the aristocracy. He believed this event would lead to a classless society in which people are willing to work for the benefit of others, creating a higher form of life and society (Schunk, 2012). While his vision of a better society may sound appealing, history has proven otherwise. The oppression and devastation brought own through the centuries by socialism, communism, and Stalinism stand as witnesses against Marx’s ideology.

In reference to Vygotsky’s constructivist approaches to learning, Schunk (2012) wrote, “…his views represented an attempt to apply Marxist ideas of social change to language and development” (p. 311). Vygotsky placed great emphasis on the effect social environments have on learning (Schunk, 2012). This belief is clearly reflected in his sociocultural theory and zone of proximal development theory (Schunk, 2012). According to the sociocultural theory, he believed that students interacting together has a more profound impact on their learning than simply sharing information; in fact, he believed this collaboration could actually reorder mental structures (Schunk, 2012). In terms of Marxist ideologies, he hoped that this reordering of the mental structure could be used to produce more intelligent and altruistic citizens (Schunk, 2012). Moreover, Vygotsky even postulated that all higher-order mental processes are initiated in social contexts (Schunk, 2012). According to Schunk (2012) however, this is his most controversial and contested belief. While social and cultural contexts have implications for education, research has shown that Vygotsky’s view was overstated. Nonetheless, Vygotsky believed schooling was important because it allows students the opportunity to develop greater self-awareness, to increase their language ability, and to understand their role in the world (Schunk, 2012).

While some influencers of constructivism were affected by Naturalism, constructivism is certainly appropriate in the context of a biblical Christian worldview. According to Schunk (2012), constructivism stresses the interactions with others in the quest to gain skills and knowledge. Seeking knowledge is unquestionably a biblical concept; in fact, Proverbs 18:15 states, “An intelligent heart acquires knowledge, and the ear of the wise seeks knowledge” (English Standard Version). Likewise, Proverbs 1:5 says, “A wise man will hear and increase in learning, and a man of understanding will acquire wise counsel” (King James Version). Aside from seeking knowledge, it is also a biblical concept to work together, edifying one another in the pursuit of knowledge and wisdom, particularly Godly wisdom. Proverbs 27:17 states, “Iron sharpenth iron, so a man sharpenth the countenance of his friend” (King James Version). This validates the concept of learning through interactions with others. Finally, it is logical to study learning theories such as constructivism, and the instructional strategies that relate to it such as project-based learning, to determine which methods are best suited and most expedient for students. This, too, is affirmed as a biblical concept by 2 Timothy 2:15: “Study to shew thyself approved unto God, a workman that needeth not to be ashamed…” (King James Version).

Conclusion

Schools looked quite different years ago. In the early days of education, some teachers even taught in single-room schoolhouses, teaching all students from first to twelfth grade. There were no computers, projectors, or smartboards. There were no high-stakes standardized testing or state-mandated learning objectives. Even so, education is a fluid field. Things change rapidly. Standards change. Testing requirements change. Technology changes. Generations are different than generations that came before. With these realities in mind, it is imperative for educators to stay abreast of current research, particularly in the field of instructional strategy. Project-based learning is one such instructional strategy. While the positive effects of project-based learning have been well-documented for decades, the method has been used less and less in many cases due to the constraints of high stakes testing and the lack of time teachers have for preparation. Nonetheless, current research trends are refocusing on authentic learning strategies such as project-based learning (Axelson & Flick, 2010). Researchers, educators, and legislators are beginning to acknowledge the unintended negative effects that often result from excessive testing which often forces teachers to “teach to the test.” While accountability is important, preparing students to be successful adults with real-world skills which they can use in this global economy is more important. In fact, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), a leading American institution, has acknowledged the effectiveness of authentic teaching strategies such as project-based learning and is now accepting student portfolios along with applications (Thompson, 2014). In reference to the research question, I conclude based on a multitude of research that project-based learning has a positive impact on student engagement and motivation in the K-12 setting, along with a positive impact on other student factors such as self-efficacy and academic achievement. Thus, we would be astute to remember the words of John Dewey: “If we teach today’s students as we taught yesterday’s, we rob them of tomorrow.”

References Axelson, R. D., & Flick, A. (2010). Defining student engagement. Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 43(1), 38-43. doi:10.1080/00091383.2011.533096 Baser, D., Ozden, M. Y., & Karaarslan, H. (2017). Collaborative project-based learning: An integrative science and technological education project. Research in Science & Technological Education, 35(2), 131-18. doi:10.1080/02635143.2016.1274723 Dekker, T., & Feijs, E. (2005). Scaling up strategies for change: Change in formative assessment practices. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 12(3), 237-254. doi:10.1080/09695940500337215 Grant, M. M. (2011). Learning, beliefs, and products: Students' perspectives with project-based learning. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 5(2), 6.

Han, S., Capraro, R. M., & Capraro, M. M. (2016). How science, technology, engineering, and mathematics project based learning affects high-need students in the U.S. Learning and Individual Differences, 51, 157-166. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2016.08.045

Hill, A. E. (2014). Using interdisciplinary, project-based, multimodal activities to facilitate literacy across the content areas. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 57(6), 450-460. doi:10.1002/jaal.270

Holmes, V., & Hwang, Y. (2016). Exploring the effects of project-based learning in secondary mathematics education. The Journal of Educational Research, 109(5), 449-463. doi:10.1080/00220671.2014.979911

Hugerat, M. (2016). How teaching science using project-based learning strategies affects the classroom learning environment. Learning Environments Research, 19(3), 383-395. doi:10.1007/s10984-016-9212-y

Kaldi, S., Filippatou, D., & Govaris, C. (2011). Project-based learning in primary schools: Effects on pupils' learning and attitudes. Education 3-13, 39(1), 35-47. doi:10.1080/03004270903179538

Kokotsaki, D., Menzies, V., & Wiggins, A. (2016). Project-based learning: A review of the literature. Improving Schools, 19(3), 267-277. doi:10.1177/1365480216659733

Lam, S., Cheng, R. W., & William Y. K. Ma. (2009). Teacher and student intrinsic motivation in project-based learning. Instructional Science, 37(6), 565-578. doi:10.1007/s11251-008-9070-9

Lee, D., Huh, Y., & Reigeluth, C. M. (2015). Collaboration, intragroup conflict, and social skills in project-based learning. Instructional Science, 43(5), 561-590. doi:10.1007/s11251-015-9348-7

Lee, J. S., Moran, K. A., Drake, J., & Blackwell, S. (2014). Taking a leap of faith: Redefining teaching and learning in higher education through project-based learning. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 8(2) doi:10.7771/1541-5015.1426

Schunk, D. H. (2012). Learning theories: An educational perspective. Boston: Pearson

Sire, J. W. (2009). The universe next door: A basic worldview catalog (Fifth ed.). Downers Grove, Ill: InterVarsity Press.

Tamim, S. R., & Grant, M. M. (2013). Definitions and uses: Case study of teachers implementing project-based learning. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 7(2), 72-101.

Thompson, G. (2014). The maker movement connects to the classroom. The Education Digest, 80(3), 34-37.

Tobias, E. S., Campbell, M. R., & Greco, P. (2015). Bringing curriculum to life: Enacting project-based learning in music programs. Music Educators Journal, 102(2), 39-47. doi:10.1177/0027432115607602