2 pages in 12hrs

Running head: EFFECTS OF PRENATAL COCAINE USE

The Effects of Prenatal Cocaine Use on Adolescents

Student

December 10, 2018

HESC 321 (14938)

California State University, Fullerton

EFFECTS OF PRENATAL COCAINE USE 2

Introduction

According to the results of the 2012 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, illicit drug

use occurs in 5.9% of all pregnancies. The rates of use were highest among 15 to 17-year olds

mothers at 18.3% and 18 to 25-year olds at 12.4%. Of these illicit drugs, one of the most highly

publicized was the use of cocaine. Cocaine is an extremely potent stimulant that can be inhaled,

injected, smoked or ingested orally. Prenatal cocaine exposure has gotten an abundance of

attention from the media, mostly after the 1980’s “crack baby” scare. Cocaine use during

pregnancy has been associated with many health complications. Behnke & Smith (2013) found

that prenatal cocaine exposure correlates with an increase in infectious diseases, gastrointestinal

problems, psychological disorders, respiratory complications, and even cardiovascular disorders.

Many studies have looked into how prenatal cocaine use can lead to issues in utero and infancy.

Recently researchers have started to investigate further and look into how cocaine use during

pregnancy affects children in their adolescent years. With all of the changes and transitions going

on at this time, the period of adolescence can be a stressful and demanding time for any

developing child. It has been hypothesized that even small, cognitive effects caused by prenatal

cocaine use may become amplified during this sensitive time. It is especially important to

research these possible cognitive effects because the experiences in adolescent years may have a

direct association to how children function in their later adult lives. Researchers have been

especially interested in the significant effects of prenatal cocaine use on adolescent sexual

behaviors, substance use, and the presence of internalizing and externalizing behaviors.

Findings

In recent years, there has been increasing research exploring the effects of prenatal

cocaine use on sexual behaviors and early onset of sexual engagement in adolescents. Min,

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Minnes, Lang, Albert, Kim, Singer (2016) examined the relationship between prenatal cocaine

exposure and increased adolescent sexual risk behaviors. This longitudinal study was conducted

using 364 children ages 15-17. Of these participants, 179 of the children had no prenatal cocaine

exposure, and 185 of the children had been exposed to cocaine in the womb. The results of this

study indicated that there were some correlations between prenatal cocaine exposure and sexual

risk behavior in adolescents. Min et al. (2016) discovered that the higher the amount of cocaine

used during pregnancy, the more likely an adolescent would engage in sexual activity at age 17.

This study also found a positive correlation between prenatal cocaine use and early onset of

sexual intercourse (Min et al.,2016). Another longitudinal study by Min, Minnes, Lang, Yoon,

and Singer (2015) found that adolescents that were exposed to cocaine during gestation were

2.24 times more likely to participate in early sexual intercourse than adolescents that were not

exposed to cocaine during gestation. Additionally, both of these studies found that externalizing

behaviors played a significant role in predicting early adolescent sexual risk behaviors in those

exposed to cocaine during gestation (Min et al., 2015; Min et al., 2016).

Researchers have questioned how prenatal cocaine use can affect the display of

externalizing and internalizing behaviors in children. A 2015 study by Richardson, Goldschmidt,

Larkby and Day examined the association between externalizing behaviors and prenatal cocaine

exposure. Richardson et al. (2015) conducted a longitudinal study of 219 15-year-olds, 95 of

which were exposed to cocaine in the womb. The results of this study found a significant

correlation between first trimester prenatal cocaine exposure and the display of externalizing

behaviors. These behaviors included delinquent behavior such as theft, destruction of property

and status offenses (Richardson et al.,2015). A similar study by Richardson, Lidush, Larkby and

Day (2013) explored the effects of prenatal cocaine use on internalizing behaviors. A strong

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relationship was found between prenatal cocaine exposure and withdrawn or unsociable

behaviors. It was discovered that prenatal cocaine use also predicted more anxious and depressed

behaviors (Richardson et al., 2013). Min et al. (2014) conducted a study which examined the

effects of prenatal cocaine exposure on both internalizing and externalizing behaviors of

adolescents. Additionally, this study looked at potential adolescent attention problems associated

with cocaine exposure during pregnancy. Although the results of this study found no association

between prenatal exposure and adolescent internalizing behaviors, it was discovered that there

was a relationship between exposure and a greater amount of externalizing problems as well as

attention issues in adolescents (Min et al., 2014). When compared to non-exposed adolescents,

the group of adolescents with prenatal cocaine exposure showed increased problems with

attention. These results suggested to researchers that exposure to cocaine during gestation may

have some kind of effect on the developing nervous system (Min et al., 2014). Increased

externalizing and internalizing behaviors during adolescence may have an association with other

risky behaviors during this sensitive time. A 2017 research study conducted by Minnes et al.

explored how these increased externalizing and internalizing behaviors may lead to many

consequences, including using and abusing substances.

A commonly explored issue that researchers examine when studying prenatal cocaine

exposure is adolescent substance abuse. A large number of studies have been done to figure out

if cocaine use during pregnancy will cause offspring to be more likely to use or abuse substances

in their future. To examine this topic, Minnes et al. (2017) conducted a study of 365 adolescents,

186 with prenatal cocaine exposure and 179 without exposure. The results of this study

concluded that prenatal cocaine exposure was linked to increased use and dependence of various

substances by age 17. Findings indicated that, compared to their peers, prenatal cocaine exposed

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adolescents were twice as likely to use tobacco and marijuana (Minnes et al., 2017).

Additionally, Frank et al. (2011) explored how prenatal cocaine use was linked to an earlier

initiation of substances in adolescents. This study consisted of 149 participants separated into

three groups: no cocaine exposure, light cocaine exposure, and heavy cocaine exposure. The

results of this study indicated that 74% of the adolescent participants that were heavily exposed

to cocaine in the womb had initiated use of licit and illicit substances by age 16. Findings also

showed that at age 16, 58% of the adolescent participants who were lightly exposed to cocaine

during pregnancy-initiated substance use. Only 48% of the unexposed group of adolescents were

found to be using substances at this age (Frank et al., 2011). Results of this study also found that

among these prenatal exposed adolescents, marijuana and alcohol were the most commonly

consumed (Frank et al., 2011). Although, a study by Warner, Behnke, Eyler and Szabo (2011)

found contrasting results. Warner et al. (2011) conducted a longitudinal study of 263

participants and did not find any direct correlation between prenatal cocaine exposure and

adolescent substance use or abuse. However, the results of this study did find relationships

between early adolescent substance use and their direct home environments. Warner et al. (2011)

explains how women using cocaine during pregnancy are more likely to have substances around

the household when compared to women who did not use cocaine during pregnancy.

Consequently, adolescents growing up in that environment are more likely to use or abuse

substances (Warner et al., 2011). Contrasting results show that more research needs to be done

exploring prenatal cocaine exposure and adolescent substance abuse.

Discussion

In summary, a number of significant effects have been found when analyzing the use of

cocaine during pregnancy and adolescent cognitive and behavioral functioning. Positive

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correlations have been found when comparing prenatal cocaine use and risky sexual behaviors.

Overall, findings indicate that higher amounts of cocaine ingested during pregnancy are

associated with a higher risk of early initiation of sexual behaviors in adolescents (Min et al.,

2015; Min et al., 2016). Results vary when analyzing the presence of internalizing and

externalizing behaviors, which indicate that more research needs to be done on the subject

(Richardson et al., 2013; Min et al., 2014). When evaluating the results of various studies of

prenatal cocaine use and adolescent substance use, there has been a significant relationship

between exposure and early initiation of substance use in adolescents (Frank et al., 2011; Minnes

et al., 2017). However, there are some contrasting results, indicating that the subject needs to be

explored further. These findings can be incredibly useful for both pregnant women and parents

of adolescents with cocaine exposure. Data about the negative effects of prenatal cocaine

exposure may sway pregnant women not to use or to seek treatment if necessary. For parents of

adolescents with cocaine exposure, these finding may help guide them during their child’s

adolescent years and assist them in understanding negative behaviors their children are

exhibiting. Overall, research findings regarding cocaine use during pregnancy should help

women everywhere to be cautious about the substance use, because it is not just hurting them but

possibly a growing child.

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References

Behnke, M., Smith V.C. (2013) Prenatal substance abuse: Short and long-term effects on the

exposed fetus. Pediatrics, 131(3), 9–24.

Frank, D., Rose-Jacobs, R., Crooks, D., Cabral, H., Gerteis, J., Hacker, K., Martin, B.,

Weinstein, Z., Heeren, T. (2011). Adolescent initiation of licit and illicit substance use:

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Mental Health Services Administration. (2013). Results from the 2012 National Survey on Drug

Use and Health: Volume I. (HHS Publication No. SMA 10-4856). Substance Abuse and

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Min, M. O., Minnes, S., Lang, A., Albert, J. M., Kim, J. Y., & Singer, L. T. (2016). Pathways to

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