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Running head: EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT 1
The Effects of Alcohol on Child Development
California State University, Fullerton
EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT 2
Introduction
Alcohol is a licit drug that poses a great risk to health and safety when consumed in
excess amounts or when it puts others in danger. According to the Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention (2018), in the United States, excessive alcohol consumption has resulted in about
88,000 deaths every year from the years 2006 to 2010. The amount of alcohol consumed at a
time plays a role in determining how detrimental its effects are. Binge drinking is defined as four
or more standard drinks during a single occasion for women, and five or more standard drinks
during a single occasion for men. Heavy drinking for women is characterized by the
consumption of eight or more drinks per week, while for men, heavy drinking is marked by
fifteen or more drinks per week. Lastly, moderate drinking would be one drink per day for
women and two or less for men. In the United States, twenty one is the minimum legal drinking
age.
There are many circumstances in which alcohol should be completely avoided to prevent
harm. Those who are pregnant or may be pregnant should not consume any alcohol. Short term
health risks posed by maternal alcohol consumption include miscarriage, stillbirth, and fetal
alcohol spectrum disorders (FASDs) or fetal alcohol exposure. When mothers consume alcohol
during any stage in their pregnancy, they put their babies at risk for birth defects and
neurodevelopmental abnormalities (National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism, 2015).
Maternal drinking is frowned upon in our society today, but it is an important topic of study for
the reason that some women continue to drink because there is a misconception that small
amounts are okay.
Findings
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Alcohol is proven to be a negative influence on developmental outcomes. Extensive
research has been conducted for over forty years finding the ways in which alcohol impairs the
developing fetus. Maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy is strongly advised against by
pediatricians and not accepted by society. Research by Behnke and Smith (2013) finds evidence
showing that alcohol has strong effects on the developing fetus on growth, anomalies, behavior,
cognition, and achievement. As ethanol is consumed by the mother, it is able to easily pass
through the placenta and make its way to the fetus. When the ethanol has reached the developing
fetus it has concentrations in the maternal blood, fetal blood, and in the amniotic fluid. The
authors summarize critical hypotheses on the effects of alcohol in prenatal development. Alcohol
has direct teratogenic effects, meaning it may cause defects in the development of the embryo or
fetus. The article also notes the toxic effects alcohol has on a variety of human bodily functions
such as prostaglandin and protein synthesis, nutritional effects, and neurotransmitter levels.
The term Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) was coined in 1973 to describe maternal
influences on the developing child’s physical traits and dysmorphology (May et al., 2011). In
addition to FAS, Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) reflect the adverse effects of alcohol
on the developing fetus. A FAS diagnosis relies on evidence of facial anomalies, evidence of
prenatal and/or postnatal growth deficiency, and, if possible, confirmation of maternal alcohol
consumption. Research by May et al. (2011) identifies maternal risk factors for FAS and FASD.
The authors emphasize the significant roles that quantity, frequency, and timing of drinking
during gestation have in the outcomes of maternal alcohol consumption. As quantity and
frequency of alcohol consumption increase the risk for FAS increases, while the severity of the
case varies. Other factors that are found to coincide with the likelihood of FAS are increased age,
EFFECTS OF ALCOHOL ON CHILD DEVELOPMENT 4
already giving birth to other children, and shorter stature. The authors used a structural equation
model to distinguish the contributing factors to binge drinking which were number of drinks
consumed per day of drinking during pregnancy, drinks per day before pregnancy, and drinks per
weekend. Overall, the study found drinking factors to be most significant in developmental
outcomes.
Research by O’Connor (2014) looked beyond the physical developmental outcomes of
maternal alcohol consumption and studied the mental health outcomes for the developing fetus
based on prenatal alcohol exposure (PAE). Similar to May et al., O’Connor finds that amounts
and patterns of alcohol consumption are critical in predicting the likelihood of FAS. The author
reports that the central nervous system of the fetus is inhibited by the presence of alcohol and it
is apparent at birth. The infant may be jittery and irritable. The baby may also display instability
in autonomic functioning, higher activity levels, and inconsistency in sleep patterns. The author
believes that these behaviors influence the mother-child relationship. This is significant because
it supports the understanding that maternal alcohol consumption is a huge problem. It negatively
alters bodily functions and can hinder connections made between the mother and her child.
Not only does maternal alcohol consumption pose a risk for the developing fetus, it also
has consequences for the baby when transmitted through breastfeeding. A study by May et al.
(2016) aims to research the outcomes when alcohol is consumed by breastfeeding mothers.
Breastfeeding is beneficial to the child’s development and has also been found to protect from
several diseases and infections. Despite the fact that mothers are strongly advised against alcohol
consumption during this period of time, some mothers believe it is okay to do so in moderation.
The authors concluded that alcohol consumption during the breastfeeding period produced
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negative outcomes for the developing child. The results of the study explain that those who
consumed alcohol during pregnancy were often the same mothers who consumed alcohol while
breastfeeding. Children who were exposed to alcohol through their mothers’ breast milk were
characterized by below average weight at seven years old and lower verbal IQ. This study
supports the previous studies showing that children with FAS are likely to have birth defects as
detected in anomalies. Furthermore, when alcohol is carried to the child through the mother’s
milk they are susceptible to the outcomes associated with the FAS phenotype placing them on
the FASD continuum. This compromises development in areas of growth, cognition, and
behavior.
Alcohol exposure in both prenatal development and infancy is proven to be detrimental.
The adverse effects of alcohol when consumed in high amounts at a frequent rate impact the
child throughout their lifespan. The study by O'Connor (2014) analyzes the presence of the
negative effects from infancy through young adulthood. As previously explained, an infant with
FAS or FASD may display symptoms of abnormal central nervous system functioning. The
author finds that the temperamental deficits of the developing child can lead to compromised
mother-child connections, that may further predict issues with attachment security in the early
childhood period. Following early childhood, mood disorder symptoms were found to be
common with PAE. Internalizing problems including depression and anxiety along with attention
deficits were some of the mental health issues found in this developmental period. Lastly, those
with PAE and/or FAS in adolescence and young adulthood were reported to suffer with further
mental health issues, including a higher risk for suicide attempt. Alcohol exposure to the fetus
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and developing child can lead to a likelihood of alcohol and drug misuse for them in adulthood
as well. The negative effects of alcohol are prominent and is a huge concern in for public health.
Discussion
Overall, it is evident that alcohol should not be consumed in any amount during
pregnancy. Research proves that maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy interferes
during all stages of fetal development and can have long-term, adverse effects on the child. For
example, a child whose mother drank alcohol during pregnancy can face mental health issues
such as internalizing problems like depression and anxiety. Mothers who are aware that alcohol
is not safe for their baby and still choose to consume it, likely struggle with alcohol use disorder
or other alcohol related problems, but there is no excuse for this behavior, it is irresponsible and
cruel.
Efforts to inform the public that alcohol is not safe in any amount during pregnancy have
proven to be successful, but further action should be made targeting mothers who are likely to
disregard it. One of the ways in which researchers and clinicians have responded to FASDs and
PAE is by implementing learning and behavioral interventions (National Institute on Alcohol
Abuse and Alcoholism, 2015). Family support groups and classes have been used to teach
parents how to meet the unique care needs that their child with FASD may have. School-based
interventions are used to improve functioning in school for children with FASD as well as
provide specialized strategies for teachers working with these children. Interventions are
necessary and should continue to be implemented. As a society, we should advocate for children
with FASDs and PAE, so that they can be provided with any special attention they may need to
overcome the challenges that prevent them from learning and developing.
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References
Behnke, M., & Smith, V. (2013). Prenatal substance abuse: Short- and long-term effects on the
exposed fetus. Pediatrics, 131(3), E1009-E1024.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018). Fact sheets: Alcohol use and your health.
Retrieved from https://www.cdc.gov/alcohol/fact-sheets/alcohol-use.htm
May, P., Hasken, J., Blankenship, J., Marais, A., Joubert, B., Cloete, M., . . . Seedat, S. (2016).
Breastfeeding and maternal alcohol use: Prevalence and effects on child outcomes and
fetal alcohol spectrum disorders. Reproductive Toxicology, 63, 13-21.
May, P. A., Tabachnick, B. G., Gossage, J. P., Kalberg, W. O., Marais, A., Robinson, L. K.,. . .
Hoyme. (2011). Maternal risk factors predicting child physical characteristics and
dysmorphology in fetal alcohol syndrome and partial fetal alcohol syndrome. Drug and
Alcohol Dependence, 119(1-2), 18-27.
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism. (2015). Fetal alcohol exposure. Retrieved
from https://pubs.niaaa.nih.gov/publications/FASDFactsheet/FASD.pdf
O’Connor, M. (2014). Mental health outcomes associated with prenatal alcohol exposure:
Genetic and environmental factors. Current Developmental Disorders Reports, 1(3),
181-188.
