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Running head: TERRORISM IN THE U.S.

TERRORISM IN THE U.S.

Terrorism in the U.S.

Terrorism in the U.S.

Introduction

My study focuses on the terrorist attack that took place on September 11, 2001 in multiple cities in the United States. The attack on the United States was brought on by Osama Bin Laden and his al-Qaeda organization as an act of terrorism. Almost three thousand people died that day in the World Trade Center, the Pentagon, and the airplanes that were hijacked. The ultimate effect that the attack had on the nation was immense, with reactions and effects still being present to this day.

For many people involved in the attacks, the shock triggered PTSD that must be treated to this day (Neria, DiGrandre, & Adams, 2011). Additionally, people who were there for support and aid, such as telecommunicators and social workers also suffered from effects like PTSD due to their exposure to the victims and their first-hand experiences (Lilly & Pierce, 2013).

Support groups were formed to help people grieve and cope with the loss of their loved ones. Different groups took different approaches, with all groups sharing the goal of keeping the memory of their loved ones alive. It is important to have different alternatives in terms of support for people that need help to deal with the harsh reality that is terrorism.

Another important detail to address that came upon as a result of the actions of Osama Bin Laden and al-Qaeda was xenophobia. Americans grew a certain fear and disrespect for all Middle Easterners and Muslims because it is the population that was blamed. American Muslims living in the U.S. were being harassed and treated unfairly as a result, although they too, lost loved ones and were grieving. Additionally, even at airport security checks, they were being targeted (Abu-Raiya, Pargament, & Mahoney, 2011).

Abu-Raiya, H., Pargament, K. I., & Mahoney, A. (2011). Examining coping methods with stressful interpersonal events experienced by Muslims living in the United States following the 9/11 attacks. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 3(1), 1-14.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0020034

Following the attacks of 9/11, the Muslim population living in the United States suffered from backlash and discrimination against other Americans. The study at hand examines the interpersonal events experienced by 138 Muslims that were stressful to cope with. These events ranged from hearing negative comments about Muslims, being targeted in airport security checks solely because they were Muslim, being verbally harassed by others in public settings, and being discriminated against. The study was done by sending out surveys through online forums and groups consisting of Muslim Americans.

This article is important to my research because it is important to further this study for the mental and overall health of people who are victims of discrimination following the terrorist attacks of 9/11. The events of 9/11 had an impact on the well being of Muslims living in America, this study should help Americans understand this impact and raise awareness. Additionally, it is important for Muslim Americans to find coping ways that work for them to counterattack the discrimination and targeting that they are subject to.

Amirault, J., & Bouchard, M., (2017). Timing is everything: The role of contextual and terrorism-specific factors in the sentencing outcomes of terrorist offenders. European Journal of Criminology, 14(3), 269–289. https://doi-org.csulb.idm.oclc.org/10.1177/ 1477370815578194

This study examines the impact of legislative and incident based factors on sentencing. One conflict presented is that outside factors play larger roles in sentencing than the actual crime committed. For example, race, sex, and age are usually some characteristics that are pointed to that create a harsher sentence due to being more of a threat in the eyes of the people. The present study looks to find the answer to multiple issues such as whether or not offenders who are convicted of terrorism crimes are punished harsher than those convicted under general criminal provisions and if perceptions of increased threat such as race, sex, and age result in harsher punishment for terrorist offenders. Through document analysis, this study was completed using twenty nine legal documents. According to the findings of this study, criminal legislation adequately addresses terrorism offences. Context plays a significant role in sentencing of terrorism offenders. Terrorist offenders have been identified as a specific population that poses the largest threat to our country and should therefore be analyzed very closely.

The way that the sentencing structure works for people who commit the same exact crime is very important, as well as knowing what leads to longer sentences for people who commit terrorism crimes.

Bourque, L. B., Mileti, D. S., Kano, M., & Wood, M. M. (2012). Who prepares for terrorism? Environment & Behavior, 44(3), 374–409. https://doi-org.csulb.idm.oclc. org/10.1177/0013916510390318

This study addresses the population of people that are involved in proactive preparedness and avoidance activities since the attacks of September 11, 2001. One objective of this study was to figure out if targeted cities such as New York City and Washington DC as well as threatened locations such as Los Angeles County engaged more in proactive preparedness following 9/11 and whether it was done solely due to terrorism or if other things caused it, such as natural disasters or other factors. Another objective was to figure out if this behavior differed by gender, race, or income, and if it did, how so. The lack of research in this field targeting specifically the various possible reasons for proactive preparedness and avoidance activities is what led this research. Majority of the studies conducted on this topic navigate natural disasters, such as earthquakes or floods as the reason why people do this, never has there been a study that focuses on terrorism as a reason behind it. Many different factors were measured such as marital status, gender, age, social influences, perceived risk, etc. the methodology used for this study was by interviewing people using stratified sampling and 3,300 households were studied. It was found that very few people prepare due to terrorism exclusively. Avoidance activities were hardly administered with less than one being reported on average along with 2.7 preparedness activities. Those activities that were the easiest to do were the one being done by people. A large amount of people did become more vigilant, however, the issue of outside factors such as race, gender, and income influencing or having an effect on partaking in these activities showed to be very weakly supported or rejected.

These behaviors among people following the 9/11 attack, such as proactive preparedness is important for my study because it shows the effect that the attack had on people’s behavior if any and how people reacted to it. While some still to this day live terrified and in fear of subsequent attacks, others are very careless and live day to day as if 9/11 would not have happened.

Byers, B. D., & Jones, J. A. (2007). The impact of the terrorist attacks of 9/11 on anti-Islamic hate crime. Journal of Ethnicity in Criminal Justice, 5(1), 43–56. https://doi-org.csulb. idm.oclc.org/10.1300/J222v05n01pass:[_]03

This study analyses the hate crime events that took place immediately after 9/11, the most common locations where hate crime was reported, and the theoretical interpretation for the patterns of this data. Those individuals who were perceived to be Arab American or of Islamic faith did in fact report hate crimes happening against them, as well as a rise in fear of being victimized. Additionally, the hate towards those of Middle-Eastern descent came from a newly developed us vs. them point of view following the 9/11 attacks. The study was done by obtaining FBI crime data from Michigan State University. The data showed that religious based hate crimes immediately following September 11,2001 continued strongly for about eight weeks. They slowly dissipated after week eight, but were still high compared to the amount of hate crimes prior to 9/11. The events that took place on September 11, 2001 were considered “triggering events” meaning that they triggered a change in social behavior.

Once again, it is important to study how people’s behavior patterns change with different events, such as a terrorist attack. Knowing the way that people are discriminating and generalizing groups of people can be helpful if it is something that we want to change. For example, people being racist and showing xenophobia for those of Middle Eastern decent is definitely behavior that should be corrected to unite the nation.

Campana, P., (2007). Beyond 9/11: Terrorism and media in a mid-term period view (1998-2005). Global Crime, 8(4), 381–392. https://doi-org.csulb.idm.oclc.org/10.1080/174405 707017 39744

Campana’s research pulls from a previous research done many years ago. It investigates the medias overrepresentation or underrepresentation of terrorist attacks as well as the quality of coverage varying by proximity to the attack site. This study places an emphasis on the difference between national and international terrorism, and mention that previously, newspaper articles never differentiated between domestic and international terrorism although it makes a huge difference. This research may not be very helpful to my study because it jumps between media coverage to technical terms, however, it does have a few terms that may be useful for my study.

Couch, S. R., Wade, B., & Kindler, J. D. (2008). Victims’ groups following the 9/11 terrorist attacks. Sociological Inquiry, 78(2), 248–257. https://doi.org.csulb.idm.oclc.org/10. 1111/j.1475-682X.2008.00237.x

In this study, three different victim groups were studied: the WTC united family group, peaceful tomorrows, and skyscraper safety campaign. The methodology used to compare them were interviews and document analysis of data and transcripts in order to understand what pathway they took to give meaning and take action for the victims of the 9/11 terrorist attacks. The members of each group shaped their opinions of the event based on how the event was constructed by their groups. All three groups focused on the “proper remembrance” of the victims of 9/11 attacks. Each individual group had its own unique way of doing so, however, they all focused on this. Gathering justice was another important goal of all groups by telling the stories of the victims, holding those at fault accountable, and acknowledging negligence by Port Authority. Finally, all groups saw their purpose as being altruistic. They believe they are giving some real meaning to the loss of their loved ones. They used wars as context of reference. The social location/position of the group members is what formed their standing, but it still is unclear how collective meaning and actions are developed.

This is one of the most important studies because it shows three different ways that people respond to crisis. While one group is peaceful and simply trying to keep the memory of their loved ones alive, other groups are angry and want justice. Support groups are very important to the aftermath of the attack on the twin towers.

Czwarno, M., (2006). Misjudging Islamic terrorism: The academic community’s failure to predict 9/11. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 29(7), 657–678. https://doi-org.csulb.idm. oclc.org/ 10.1080/10576100600702014

This qualitative study shows a way in which the academic community failed to predict 9/11 regardless of the multiple warnings there were. One of the ways that academics failed to predict 9/11 was because they did not see Islamic military as a large enough threat to take seriously. According to this study, international security studies were more preoccupied with viewing China as a threat as well as other regions of Asia. I thought this study to be very interesting because it gives a different perspective. While most studies blame law enforcement and the government, this one puts some responsibility on the academic community.

Giblin, M.J., Burruss, G.W., & Schafer, J.A. (2014). A stone’s throw from the metropolis: Re-examining small-agency homeland security practices. JQ: Justice Quarterly, 31(2), 368–393. https://doi-org.csulb.idm.oclc.org/10.1080/07418825.2012.662993

This study examined the preparedness of smaller police departments of 25 personnel or less when it comes to homeland security. The claim is that the department’s proximity to a larger metropolitan department makes it a bit more successful in homeland security practices. Individual from proximity to large police departments, smaller agencies of 25 or less personnel normally would not receive any training on homeland security whatsoever due to lack of funds and resources, on top of low risk of being targeted, since terrorists usually want large exposure. The methodology of the study consisted of a stratified sample of 810 small agencies. The dependent variables were preparedness and organizational efficacy while the independent variables were miles between the two departments and code.

The importance of this study on my paper is that it clearly shows the importance that law enforcement places on homeland security practices and how funds can affect the safety of the nation by being a preventative factor in acquiring homeland security training.

Gordon, A., (2005). Terrorism as an academic subject after 9/11: Searching the Internet reveals a stockholm syndrome trend. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 28(1), 45–59. https://doi org.csulb.idm.oclc.org/10.1080/10576100590524339

Following the terrorist attack of September 11, many different schools created courses with the purpose of better understanding the different disciplines at work on the study of terrorism. The University of California at Los Angeles developed fifty new courses to offer to its students all focused on terrorism and various aspects of the phenomenon. It was meant to help students understand the complexity of it and to appreciate the efforts that go into combating it. Courses relating to terrorism grew so popular that they had to be offered up to three times every school year because the demand was so high. About a year or two after the attacks, law enforcement professionals began teaching terrorism courses in order to help provide the most accurate perspective possible. New majors came about such as Homeland Security with a focus on National Security. The Stockholm syndrome effect was noticed in places like the United States academic areas because of their attempt to understand the Islamic religion, legal system, and their reasoning behind such horrendous acts of hatred. People fear what they do not understand, therefore, it was very important for scholars to try to help everyone better understand terrorism.

This article was important to my research because it shows actions taken in the academic field to better help understand the terrorism phenomenon. Although the 9/11 attacks occurred almost twenty years ago, they will forever be a part of U.S. history and it is important for scholars to learn about this event in every possible aspect, including criminology.

Hoffman, B. (2002). Rethinking terrorism and counterterrorism since 9/11. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 25(5), 303–316. https://doi-org.csulb.idm.oclc.org/10.1080/105761002901 223

Hoffman’s article explains what has been learned about terrorism in the 21st century as well as the countermeasures that must be taken. This article will be very useful for my empirical research because it includes things that other studies do not, such as where the U.S. went wrong, what the U.S. should be doing to better prepare for the case of another attack, the future possible threats and how to address them, etc. this article specifies Al Qaeda’s strategies and different operational strategies. It explains who Bin Laden was and the kind of characteristics he held that made it possible for him to carry out his attack against the United States. This article breaks down every important aspect about what led to the attack on September 11, what could have been done differently to prevent this from following through, as well as the lessons we as a nation can and have taken from the attack in order to better prepare and no be caught so off guard by a terrorist attack. It goes through the warning signs as well as the things that the United States missed, such as Bin Laden’s educational history. It questions why terrorists followed through with attacks that killed so many people if their main goal was publicity, not murder. Additionally, this article addresses suicide attackers due to their rarity because not many people are willing to give up their lives for any cause, especially when it means they will not be around to see and experience the outcome of their own actions.

This article is useful for me because it explained the dynamics of the attack. It educated the reader on who Osama Bin Laden was and what his motivations were. None of my other articles have much information on him, but this one has very good information. As well as questions that are unanswered but very important to bring up in my own study.

Huddy, L., & Feldman, S. (2011). Americans respond politically to 9/11: Understanding the impact of the terrorist attacks and their aftermath. American Psychologist, 66(6), 455-467. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0024894

The 9/11 attacks on the United States by foreign terrorists caused adjustments to both domestic and foreign security policy. These attacks led to expensive wars and reduction of civil liberties and rights of many under the USA PATRIOT Act. This study reviewed political reactions of many to the attacks of September 11, 2001 and found that some of the reactions played a large role in the support for a national security policy. This was found mostly among Americans who felt as if the United States was at high risk of terrorism and those who were angry at terrorists. In the contrary, those who were directly affected by terrorism such as 9/11 victims or family members of those whose lives were lost reported higher levels of anxiety and this anxiety lead to less support for military action. Those Americans who did not feel safe and believed there was a high risk of future terrorist attacks supported national security polices, both foreign and domestic. Their overall finding was that Americans who feel angry with terrorists and who perceive a strong risk of future terrorism are the ones who are more willing to support a strong government response. Those highly patriotic Americans that blamed Al Qaeda for the multiple losses of lives were the ones more likely to be angry at terrorists while those who actually lost a loved one in the attacks felt more vulnerable and anxious. Women, blacks, and Latinos felt more vulnerable than others.

Ilardi, G.J., (2009). The 9/11 attacks- A study of Al Qaeda’s use of intelligence and counterintelligence. Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 32(3), 171–187. https://doi-org.csulb.idm.oclc.org/10.1080/10576100802670803

This study examines the counter intelligence and intelligence used by Al Qaeda in planning the attacks of 9/11. It is important to know this because it shows what the visible weaknesses of our nation were. These weaknesses were apparent enough for them to target us and use them to their advantage. It is also important to know what tactics they were able to use because it prepares us for any future attacks by them.

Johnson, T. C., & Hunter, R. D. (2017). Changes in homeland security activities since 9/11: An examination of state and local law enforcement agencies’ practices. Police Practice & Research, 18(2), 160–173. https://doi-org.csulb.idm.oclc.org/10.1080/15614263.2016. 1261253

This study examines how much or how little state and local law enforcement agencies participated in homeland security activities post 9/11 in order to prevent or be better prepared in the case of a terrorist attack. It also examined and assessed whether or not regional differences were present. It then examines the same two factors thirteen years later. This study is important because it shows just how much homeland security practices have developed since the 9/11 attacks. The methodology used to find whether or not there were significant differences in region currently and immediately after 9/11 was survey data. The survey was emailed to 6,715 law enforcement administrators specifically selected from directories. Some findings were that immediately after 9/11, not many agencies engaged in homeland security activities mostly because they were confused as to what their role was as a local or state agency. Some contributors to participation in these activities were factors such as funding, potential risk level, and jurisdiction size. Thirteen years post 9/11 attacks, there are more agencies that engage in homeland security activities and the regional differences are very insignificant. This has to do with the fact that roles of local and state agencies are much more defined. While the participation in activities has increased, many departments still do not engage in them because they do not believe their communities will be targets to the small size of them. Also, the amount of time that has passed since the event plays a role because administrators do not feel like homeland security is necessary. The study did not explain to what extent departments engage in activities.

It is important to include this source in my research because it shows how easily it is for us to forget the severity of things. The attacks on September 11, 2001 were extremely saddening for anyone who watched and it was a time in our country when everyone was in despair. Fast forward a few years and law enforcement agencies are not taking any precaution whatsoever to train their officers on how to be ready to respond to an event as such.

Jordan, K. (2005). What we learned from 9/11: A terrorism grief and recovery process model. Brief Treatment & Crisis Intervention, 5(4), 340-355. doi:10.1093/brief-treatment/mhi028.

This article addresses the grief and recovery process in a model of three stages: the immediate aftermath, denial, and adjustment. Predisposing and post disposing factors are also discussed. After traumatic events such as the 9/11 terrorist attack, people’s beliefs about the world as they knew it, human nature, humanity, and themselves changes. Although terrorism is considered to be a form of trauma that is short-term and brief, it is extremely traumatic. The model is based on the idea that those who experienced the terrorist attack must work through the experience of visual images, emotions, and thoughts. Stage I is about feelings of despair and terror of the potential loss of life. The second stage is denial in which the individuals try to return to their state of mind prior to the attack. Many people achieve this quite quickly, however, while they may seem to be holding up fine physically, they many not be ok emotionally or mentally. Finally stage three is integration, which is where the individual questions the meaning of life and of one’s priorities. This study does not include the time frame involves in the grief process or the recovery process.

This study analyses the different stages of grief and how people cope with it. It is important to address the people who were left behind on 9/11. Friends, family members, as well as survivors must be addressed in my study. This article does so very thoroughly.

Landau, M.J., Solomon, S., Greenberg, J., Cohen, F., Pyszczynski, T., Arndt, J.,…Cook, A. (2004). Deliver us from evil: The effects of mortality salience and reminders of 9/11 on support for President George W. Bush. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 30(9), 1136-1150.

Ninety-seven undergrad students at Rutgers University volunteered to be a part of this study in order to obtain some extra credit points for their psychology class. They agreed to filling out a questionnaire packet and answering every question in the order it was asked. This study examined how American citizen’s thoughts and opinions on the U.S. President at the time of the 9/11 attacks were influenced by thoughts about death and the 9/11 attack itself. One of their studies found that reminders of the 9/11 attack caused death-related thoughts to come to mind for those being examined. Additionally, thoughts of mortality combined with 9/11 reminders also created more support for the then President, George W. Bush. When thoughts of death are most noticeable, President Bush’s popularity rises, as clearly shown in this study. Knowing how death influences voters can be helpful to strategize in future presidential campaigns. There were no other contributors such as gender, age, etc. to the decision process of the candidates.

Lilly, M. M., & Pierce, H. (2013). PTSD and depressive symptoms in 911 telecommunicators: The role of peritraumatic distress and world assumptions in predicting risk. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 5(2), 135-141. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10. 1037/a0026850

This study was conducted by forming a survey for 171 telecommunicators from 9/11 to respond. Majority of the sample were white female with an average age of 38.85. Participants were able to access the survey through many different outlets such as emails, online forums, recruitment letter, etc. The option to do it online or through a hard copy was also available. This population was at high risk for mental health issue due to their duty related high exposure to trauma. This study was the first of its kind to analyze these factors along with depression amongst this particular population. According to this study, telecommunicators who had stronger self-control were at lower risk of experiencing PTSD. This was found as a result of examining phone calls made by hysterical victims and witnesses of the attack. Those responders who were able to communicate efficiently during a very stressful period of time were also able to express their feelings and emotions efficiently with therapists, therefore deal with their PTSD symptoms, if any. It is important to do this research because it could be helpful in the development of preventative and training efforts.

While the firefighters and first responders at the scene on 9/11 might be thought to have been the ones with the most exposure to the shocking scenes and first hand view of the death of a nations, it is important to consider others who must have been greatly affected as well. One important population is telecommunicators. Many who, still experience PTSD from the event that took place 17 years ago.

Mowder, B. A., Guttman, M., Rubinson, F., & Sossin, K. M. (2006). Parents, children, and trauma: Parent role perceptions and behaviors related to the 9/11 tragedy. Journal of Child & Family Studies, 15(6), 730–740. https://doi-org.csulb.idm.oclc.org/10.1007/ s10826-006-9046-9

This study examines parents’ behavior and their beliefs post 9/11. Any perceived changes in parenting behavior and perception through self-attributions. They tested to find whether or not parents’ perception on their parenting role characteristics changed such as bonding, discipline, etc. and if it did, how so? Additionally, they wanted to know if the frequency of their behaviors change relative to 9/11 such as answering questions, reassuring their children, etc. and finally, they wanted to know if their answers regarding parenting had anything to do with demographic variables such as proximity to the World Trade Center. The methodology used was a questionnaire for ninety-nine participants. The results showed that for those working closest to the ground zero site, a stressor was triggered by terrorism and they did in fact change some of their parenting behaviors. Immediately after the attack on 9/11, parents seemed to place greater importance of bonding, caring, and loving their children. As time went by, the levels of parenting slowly went back to their original levels. However, sensitivity seems to remain higher than original as parents seem to have more sensitivity to their children’s needs.

It is important to my research to know the many different dimensions that were affected by the terrorist attack. It is way greater than simply criminal activity, there is a lot more involved in this phenomenon. The change in parenting is important because it is a change in behavior among the American people that arises from fear.

Neria, Y., DiGrande, L., & Adams, B. G. (2011). Posttraumatic stress disorder following the September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks: A review of the literature among highly exposed populations. American Psychologist, 66(6), 429-446. doi:http://dx.doi.org.csulb.idm.oclc. org/10.1037/a0024791

The methodology used in this analysis was document analysis and article review. With the analysis done, researchers studied the PTSD symptoms amongst individuals with high exposure to the 9/11 attacks during the first ten years following the attack. This study focused on people who were close to the attack such as people who lived near the World Trade Center, first responders, rescue, cleaning, etc. it was found that PTSD that was found among these individuals was associated to many different factors. Event exposure, death of a loved one, sociodemographic factors, background factors, etc. all played a role in individuals’ PTSD. Many risk factors that increased the risk of experiencing PTSD included being female, being younger, Hispanic, having direct exposure to the event such as witnessing dust clouds or being on the jury for 9/11, being witness to the events that happened that day, or proximity to the World Trade Center. For some people, specifically those who were pentagon staff, their PTSD came from perceived danger working at the pentagon. The risk of being attacked again caused high PTSD symptoms. People’s psychological response to terrorist attacks comes from the fact that these acts are completely unexpected for the most part, unlike natural disasters. Populations that are highly exposed to these acts of terrorism are the most affected by PTSD. The main predictors of PTSD among those exposed to the events on September 11, 2001 were physical injury, death of significant others, and immediate risk of their own lives.

Again, PTSD is the main focus of this article and it will be very helpful for my research because while many people died that day in the attack, many others were severely affected. Through mental conditions, physical disabilities, etc. thousands of Americans were affected that day. Many people were close enough to the attacks one way or another to experience life altering PTSD.

Osborn, C.Y., Johnson, B.T., & Fisher, J.D., (2006). After 9/11 at ground zero: The anxiety-buffering effects of worldview support on the first anniversary of 9/11. Basic & Applied Social Psychology, 28(4), 303–310. https://doi-org.csulb.idm.oclc.org/10.1207/ s15324834basp2804pass:[_]3

In their study, Osborn, Johnson, and Fisher conducted a field experiment to test the effect of death reminders; both subtle and overt, in everyday life. They did this to test the social consensus for culturally based beliefs. TMT is the focus on how human beings cope with their awareness of the threat of death, whether that awareness is conscious or subconscious. According to terror management theory, humans deal with the unconscious terror by believing in something larger than one’s mortal self and contributions larger than one’s sense of self. By believing in higher beings, humans view themselves as valuable contributors to reality and therefore deny their mortality, and the terror is subdued. This study examines whether being presented a subtle death stimuli on an anniversary of a terrorist event triggers the need for these defenses such as perceiving high social consensus for a culturally based belief. The study examined 410 passerby’s of a chapel adjacent to the World Trade Center. Following exposure to death in their everyday life, those with minority believe had more social consensus for their own belief than their counterparts. However, this effect was not present for those presented with an overt reminder of death but rather a subtle one. Through laboratory studies, we learned that individuals tend to respond favorably to those with similar beliefs as theirs and less favorably to those with opposing views.

The effect that remembering 9/11 has on victims is important to be studied to better understand the type of help that is needed for the individuals who are experiencing it. It is also helpful to understand what people do to deal with it themselves.

Paust, J.J., (2003). War and enemy status after 9/11: Attacks on the laws of war. Yale Journal of International Law, 28(2), 325-335.

This is an informative essay on the events that took place against the United States on September 11, 2001. It is being questioned whether or not the legal test for combatant status should be modified or completely changed. Combat immunity is dangerous because it covers lawful acts of war by non-citizens, meaning they cannot be charged under domestic law. Some argue that members or Taliban armed forces should not be granted prisoner of war or combatant status, however, they are afraid that this could come back and backfire on Americans. America has international armed conflict with the Taliban, therefore it doesn’t make sense to grant them prisoner of war status. However, if such changes were to be made, it could also lead to dangerous consequences for the United States as well as our army, military personnel, the military personnel of other countries, as well as to all mankind. Not only could it affect us, it could additionally help those who attacked the United States on 9/11 as well as others who plan on committing acts of transnational terrorism in the future.

Penn, E.B., (2007). Introduction: Homeland security and criminal justice - Five years after 9/11. Criminal Justice Studies, 20(2), 81–89. https://doi-org.csulb.idm.oclc.org/10.1080/ 14786010701396814

The essay talks about the homeland security sub-field. It places an importance on law enforcement agencies at every level and their preparedness to react and respond to a terrorism crisis. The essay goes into terrorism, homeland security, future threats and challenges, and documents with relation to homeland security. The essay talks about the development of homeland security. It enlightens the reader on how the agency came to be and how prior to the 9/11 attack, different federal agencies all shared and split up the duties that now belong specifically to homeland security. This essay names people from the community the real first responders as it explains that the person who assesses a situation and makes that phone call to police, fire, etc. is the real first responder and it is important that people in the community are informed, trained, and educated on how to address these situations.

This article has a lot of valuable information that can be used in my paper because it thoroughly explains the phenomenon that is terrorism, as well as homeland security and its development. It is important to include homeland security in my paper because it shows the severity of the attack and the extremes that our nation went to, to counter terrorism in the case of its reoccurrence.

Pulido, M. L. (2007). In their words: Secondary traumatic stress in social workers

responding to the 9/11 terrorist attacks in new york city. Social Work, 52(3), 279–281. Retrieved from http://csulb.idm.oclc.org/login?url=https://search.ebscohost.com/login. aspx?direct=true&db=i3h&AN=26769120&site=ehost-live

The attack on 9/11 not only affected the direct victims who were trapped inside the buildings and even killed, but it also affected many others, including New York residents. Many individuals who were living in New York when this event took place developed mental health problems. Many of them required the help of clinical professionals and social workers. The social workers that worked with these victims and other people affected by 9/11 were exposed to the same trauma as them. For a handful of them, hearing the stories of the victims interacted with their own stress levels and caused STS or, secondary traumatic stress. While trying to sympathize with their clients and understand their experiences, social workers experienced emotions similar to those of the victim. Many social workers feared that they could not do enough for their clients and that they were not good enough to help them overcome the trauma from those events. They experienced fear, nightmares, flashbacks from stories, and even related blue skies to “something bad is going to happen.” The method was interviews with close to 50 social workers in a four-year span what were involved in the recovery effort for 9/11 and providing training in STS management for about 150 others. Some policy implications include training on STS prevention and management, debriefings and supervision, a central repository available to workers, time monitoring of time spent at the trauma sites, etc.

Similar to telecommunicators, social workers and clinical professionals were also very close to the event. The latter, as a result of the aftermath effects on the individuals. Navigating what kind of effects the event had on these professionals is important because we must think of all targets affected, not only those directly affected due to death or death of a loved one.

Rigakos, G.S., Davis, R.C., Ortiz, C., Blunt, A., & Broz, J. (2009). Soft targets?: A national survey of the preparedness of large retail malls to prevent and respond to terrorist attack after 9/11. Security Journal, 22, 286-301. doi: 10.1057/palgrave.sj.8350084

Following the attack of September 11, 2001, many public places such as shopping malls and movie theatres were pressured into taking action in order to be prepared in the case of a terrorist attack occurring in their facilities. The public does not feel comfortable going to a place to enjoy themselves if that place is not deemed safe. This article addresses the measures that shopping malls have taken to ensure the safety of its shoppers and staff in the case of an attack. Surveys were sent to 1372 security directors of malls of over 250,000 square feet. Of those 1372 surveys sent, only a total of 120 were returned completed. The fact that this survey had such a low response rate could indicate the low level of concern over terrorist attacks amongst security supervisors. Over half of security directors indicated that their security policies had changed following the 9/11 attacks. Their staff was indeed instructed to keep an eye on suspicious activity or clothing. The biggest changes were to pay closer attention to cars and delivery trucks as well as being more alert of suspicious individuals. It is important to know the level of measure that shopping malls are taking to improve their security levels and to ensure that its shoppers can shop peacefully and that its staff knows exactly what to do in the case of a terrorist attack taking place in their presence.

Like Johnson & Hunter (2017), this study shows the measure that public places have taken to ensure better training for their security staff in largely populated and vulnerable places, such as movie theatres. Knowing the type of action that these places have taken and how effective they have been can help other places better improve, or create their own policies for security staff.

Watkins, J. (2017). Peer-support groups for cross-border victims of terrorism: Lessons learnt in the UK after the 9/11 and Paris attacks. Temida, 20(1), 65–76. https://doi-org.csulb.idm. oclc.org/ 10.2298/TEM1701065W

In her study, Watkins addresses two different peer support groups affected by cross-border terrorist attacks in order to help them deal with the problems that they may be facing and helping them alleviate their suffering. People’s trauma after a terrorist attack may sometimes be permanent and they need therapy to help them deal with it, and when the attack is on foreign land, it could make it tougher on them psychologically. Watkins focuses on two international terrorist events: the attack on September 11 and the Paris attack in November 2015. She found that support groups should always be available for victims of traumatic events such as terrorist attacks. The type of help they receive varies because some people work better in group settings while others prefer one on one conversations. However, arrangements should always be made for people who choose specific kind of help, such as a Skype call. Funding these peer support groups is definitely an ongoing issue because neither the host nor the residence countries want to assist financially, however, this should not be the problem with having peer support group. The groups are very helpful for its members because they share resources that are available to them outside the group. Some survivors felt isolated when they returned to their country and were not aware of the resources available to them, additionally, only victims who were seriously injured were considered victims while those that walked away with minor injuries were not provided with any type of assistance.

Knowing the type of assistance that is most helpful can be helpful for future terrorist attacks anywhere in the world. Knowing how to approach this from the start can save much time, not to mention lives.

Discussion

Research shows that although the attacks on 9/11 impacted our nation immensely, not enough has been done to take preventative measures or preparedness measures in the case of another terrorist attack taking place in the future. Law enforcement departments are not offering special training on how to respond to such an event and public places such as malls and movie theatres are not training their security either. However, there has been a rise in education on terrorism in college campus. It is important for people to be informed and educated on terrorism in case it ever repeats itself.

Although the attack took place over 15 years ago, some of the effects it left are still seen today and dealt with by people on the daily. Those who were there to help the victims felt as if they lived through the attack simply by hearing the stories in full detail. PTSD amongst a large population of victims can be seen all throughout the country in people that lived it, lost ones who did, and even people who had no direct connections to the attack.

Policy Implications

It is important to further educate people on current threats to our nation and to keep Americans in the loop as to what is happening in our country in order to achieve a better understanding of what could happen. It is also extremely important that law enforcement agencies, as well as public security receive better training to be prepared in the case of another attack taking place. The world we live in has shifter extremely and with better access to research methods and the Internet, anyone can find a way to create chaos in the nation, it is important that we are prepared and ready to counter it.

References