HRM635 Week 2 Discussion 2

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PowerPoint Presentation for Managing Performance through Training and Development

Adapted by

Alan Saks

University of Toronto

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Chapter 2

Learning and Motivation

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Learning Outcomes

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:

Define learning and workplace learning and describe how individuals learn through formal and informal learning methods

Describe how to classify learning outcomes

Explain how people learn using the three stages of learning and resource allocation theory

Use Kolb’s learning model and the VARK model to distinguish and describe the different ways people learn and the implications for training

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Learning Outcomes

Compare and contrast the different theories of learning and discuss their implications for training

Describe the six core principles of andragogy and their implications for training programs

Explain goal-setting theory and why training motivation is important for learning and training effectiveness

Describe the model of training effectiveness

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Introduction

Understanding adult learning theory, how people learn, and how their motivation for learning is integral to a training program’s success

Organizations need to be strategic in their approach to achieve organizational effectiveness

Training is the means to accomplish the goal of learning

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What Is Learning?

Learning is the process of:

Acquiring knowledge and skills

Change in individual behaviour as a result of some experience (formal or informal)

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Learning occurs when one experiences a new way of acting, thinking, or feeling; finds the new pattern gratifying or useful; and incorporates it into the repertoire of behaviours

When the behaviour is learned, it can be thought of as a skill

The most important issue is whether trainees have learned what was covered in a training program

Workplace Learning

Workplace learning:

Process of acquiring job-related knowledge and skills through both formal training programs and informal social interactions among employees

About 70 percent of learning comes from on-the-job experiences and assignments; 20 percent from relationships and interactions with others; and 10 percent from formal learning activities and events

This breakdown is known as the 70-20-10 model

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Workplace Learning

Informal learning:

Learning that occurs naturally as part of work and is not planned or designed by the organization

Formal learning:

Learning that is structured and planned by the organization

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Formal and Informal Learning

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Informal Learning

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Learning Outcomes: Gagné’s Model

Verbal information

Intellectual skills

Cognitive strategies (cognitive outcomes)

Motor skills (skill-based outcomes)

Attitudes (affective outcomes)

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Verbal information—facts, knowledge, principles, and packages of information also known as “declarative knowledge”; for example, the five disciplines of a learning organization

Intellectual skills—concepts, rules, and procedures that are known as “procedural knowledge”; for example, how to drive a car

Cognitive strategies (cognitive outcomes)—the application of information and techniques; for example, how and when to use knowledge and information

Motor skills (skill-based outcomes)—the coordination and execution of physical movements that involve muscles; for example, learning how to swim

Attitudes (affective outcomes)—preferences and internal states associated with one’s beliefs and feelings; for example, belief in the value of postsecondary education; note that attitudes are believed to be the most difficult domain to influence through training

Learning Outcomes: Kraiger and Colleagues’ Model

Cognitive domain: verbal knowledge, knowledge organization, cognitive strategies

Skill-based outcomes: compilation, automaticity

Affective outcomes: attitudinal and motivational

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Cognitive domain—quantity and type of knowledge; includes verbal knowledge, knowledge organization, and cognitive strategies

Skill-based outcomes—motor skills/technical; includes compilation, proceduralization, composition (fast and fluid performance), and automaticity (ability to perform without conscious monitoring)

Affective outcomes—attitudinal (internal state that affects behaviour) and motivational (goal orientation, self-efficacy, goals)

Implications of Learning Outcomes on Training and Development

A training program can focus on one or more learning outcomes

The extent to which a training program has an effect on any of the outcomes depends in part on the training objectives

Training methods are more or less effective depending on the learning outcome a program was designed to influence

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A training program can focus on one or more learning outcomes

Training methods are more or less effective depending on the learning outcome a program was designed to influence

Implications of Learning Outcomes on Training and Development

Different instructional events and conditions of learning are required for each of the learning outcomes

The more the learning outcomes are interrelated, changes in one might result in changes in another

Learning generally occurs over a period of time and progresses through a series of stages

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Different instructional events and conditions of learning are required for each of the learning outcomes

The more the learning outcomes are interrelated, changes in one might result in changes in another

Learning generally occurs over a period of time and progresses through a series of stages

Adaptive Character of Thought Theory: Stages of Learning

Declarative

Knowledge compilation

Procedural knowledge

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ACT theory, developed by John Anderson and called the adaptive character of thought theory (ACT), describes the learning process as it unfolds across three stages: declarative, knowledge compilation, and procedural knowledge or proceduralization

Adaptive Character of Thought Theory: Stages of Learning

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Declarative knowledge involves learning knowledge, facts, and information; for example, when learning to drive a car all your attention is focused on the task of learning

Knowledge compilation involves integrating tasks into sequences to simplify and streamline; for example, during this stage of learning to drive a car, the process that involved many separate tasks is now integrated into one smooth sequence (get into the car, put on the seatbelt, adjust the seat and mirror, and start the car); performance is still somewhat fragmented and piecemeal

Procedural knowledge involves mastery of the task and performance becomes automatic and habitual; for example, we can now perform the driving task without giving much thought to what we are doing; it is possible to perform the task of driving while listening to music or talking to others

Implications of ACT Theory on T&D

Recognizes that learning takes place in stages (declarative knowledge, compilation, procedural knowledge)

Indicates that different types of learning take place at different stages

The effects of both cognitive ability and motivational interventions on learning and performance depend on the stage of learning

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Resource Allocation Theory

Suggests that individuals possess limited cognitive resources that can be used to learn a new task

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The amount of cognitive resources an individual can allocate to learning a new task varies across the three stages of learning, as identified in ACT theory

Resource Allocation Theory

Performance is determined by:

Individual differences in attention and cognitive resources

The requirements of the task (task complexity)

Self-regulatory activities (self-monitoring and self-evaluation)

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Recognizes that learning takes place in stages (declarative knowledge, compilation, proceduralization)

Indicates that different types of learning take place at different stages

The effects of both cognitive ability and motivational interventions on learning and performance depend on the stage of learning

NOTE: research has shown that goal setting can be harmful to learning during the early stages of learning when all of one’s attention and cognitive resources must be devoted to learning the task; resource allocation theory states that during the early stages of learning, cognitive ability is more important than motivational strategies. When goals are set in the later stages of learning, they can have a positive effect on performance.

Learning Styles

Individuals differ in how they prefer to learn and how they learn best

These differences in learning preferences are known as learning styles

Two models of learning styles:

Kolb’s experiential learning theory

Fleming’s VARK model

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Recognizes that learning takes place in stages (declarative knowledge, compilation, proceduralization)

Indicates that different types of learning take place at different stages

The effects of both cognitive ability and motivational interventions on learning and performance depend on the stage of learning

NOTE: research has shown that goal-setting can be harmful to learning during the early stages of learning when all of one’s attention and cognitive resources must be devoted to learning the task; resource allocation theory states that during the early stages of learning, cognitive ability is more important than motivational strategies. When goals are set in the later stages of learning, they can have a positive effect on performance.

Kolb’s Learning Styles

The way in which an individual gathers information and processes and evaluates it during the learning process

The combination of learning modes (the way a person gathers information and the way a person processes information) results in a learning style

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Recognizes that learning takes place in stages (declarative knowledge, compilation, proceduralization)

Indicates that different types of learning take place at different stages

The effects of both cognitive ability and motivational interventions on learning and performance depend on the stage of learning

Kolb’s Learning Styles

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Learning modes involve the way people gather information:

CE = concrete experience

AC = abstract conceptualization

Learning modes also involve the way people process or evaluate information:

AC = active experimentation

RO = reflective observation

The combination of these learning modes results in a learning style

Converging: combines abstract conceptualization and active experimentation (thinking and doing); problem solving and practical application of ideas and theories

Diverging: combines concrete experience and reflective observation (feeling and watching); view situations from different points of view and generate alternative courses of action

Assimilation: combines abstract conceptualization and reflective observation (thinking and watching); process and integrate information/ideas into logical forms and theoretical models

Accommodating: combines concrete experience and active experimentation (feeling and doing); prefer hands-on experience and like to be involved in new experiences

Kolb’s Learning Styles

People can learn best by using all four styles

Kolb identifies a “learning cycle” in which people use all four modes of learning in a sequence

Learning is most effective when all four steps in the learning cycle are part of the learning experience

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Fleming’s Learning Styles

An individual’s preferred ways of gathering, organizing, and thinking about information

There are four different perceptual preferences for how people prefer to learn

V = Visual

A = Auditory/auditory

R = Read/write

K = Kinesthetic

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Recognizes that learning takes place in stages (declarative knowledge, compilation, proceduralization)

Indicates that different types of learning take place at different stages

The effects of both cognitive ability and motivational interventions on learning and performance depend on the stage of learning

Fleming’s Learning Styles

It is possible to have a combination of two, three, or four learning style preferences

While some people might have one primary learning style, others might have multiple learning styles or what is known as a multimodal learning style

There is some evidence that students perform better in courses in which the learning activities match their learning style

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Recognizes that learning takes place in stages (declarative knowledge, compilation, proceduralization)

Indicates that different types of learning take place at different stages

The effects of both cognitive ability and motivational interventions on learning and performance depend on the stage of learning

Implications of Learning Style Theory for Training

People differ in the way they prefer to learn

Motivation and success in training depends on matching training (design, content, methods) with learning style

Design training programs to appeal to people’s different learning styles

Programs should be designed with each learning mode as part of a sequence of learning experiences

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Recognizes that people differ in the way they prefer to learn

Success and comfort in training depends on how training approach and learning style match

Design training programs to appeal to people’s different learning styles

Programs should be designed with each learning mode as part of a sequence of learning experiences

Implications of Learning Style Theory for Training

Instructors should use a multimodal approach that includes activities and methods that will appeal to the visual (e.g., diagrams, charts), aural/auditory (e.g., lectures, discussions), read/write (e.g., readings, handouts), and kinesthetic (e.g., demonstrations, practice) learning styles

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Recognizes that people differ in the way they prefer to learn

Success and comfort in training depends on how training approach and learning style match

Design training programs to appeal to people’s different learning styles

Programs should be designed with each learning mode as part of a sequence of learning experiences

Learning Theories

Conditioning theory

B. Social cognitive theory

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The learning process and how people learn is explained in different theories of learning

These are important because they help explain how people learn and how to design training programs to maximize learning and retention

Two theories will be explained that have important implications for training

Learning Theories: Conditioning Theory

A. Conditioning theory (B.F. Skinner)

Learning is a result of reward and punishment contingencies that follow a response to a stimulus

A stimulus or cue would be followed by a response, which is then reinforced

Strengthens the likelihood that response will occur again and that learning will result

Note that both forms of reinforcement will increase or maintain behaviour

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Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour in response to stimulus

This is the behaviourist school of psychology that states learning is a result of reward and punishment

Negative reinforcement is not the same as punishment (the application of a negative consequence in response to undesirable behaviour)

Learning Theories: Conditioning Theory

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Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour in response to stimulus

This is the behaviourist school of psychology that states learning is a result of reward and punishment

Negative reinforcement is not the same as punishment (the application of a negative consequence in response to undesirable behaviour)

Learning Theories: Conditioning Theory

The conditioning process involves:

Shaping: the reinforcement of each step in a process until it is mastered

Chaining: the reinforcement of entire sequences of a task

Generalization: the conditioned response that occurs in circumstances different from those during learning

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The conditioning process involves linking desired behaviour to pleasurable consequences through shaping, chaining, and generalization

Shaping (reinforcement until mastery) is extremely important for complex behaviour

Chaining (reinforcement of entire sequences) is to learn to combine each step and perform the entire response

Generalization (conditioned response) is when the learner can perform the task in a variety of situations

Learning Theories: Social Cognitive Theory

B. Social cognitive theory involves social learning and states that people learn by:

Observing the behaviour of others

Making choices about different courses of action to pursue

Managing their own behaviour in the process of learning

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Social learning involves learning though the interactions with others

This can be formal or informal

People learn by:

- Observing the behaviour of others

- Making choices about different courses of action to pursue

- Managing their own behaviour in the process of learning

We observe the actions of others and make note of reinforcing or punishing outcomes

We imitate what we have observed and expect certain consequences

Research suggests that people observe and reproduce the actions and attitudes of others

Learning Theories: Social Cognitive Theory

Social cognitive theory has 3 key components:

Observation

Self-efficacy

Self-regulation

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Learning Theories: Social Cognitive Theory

Observation: learning by observing the actions of others and the consequences with 4 key critical elements:

Attention

Retention

Reproduction

Reinforcement

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Four key critical elements:

Attention—learners must attend to the behaviour (be aware of the skills that are observable)

Retention—learners must remember what they have observed and encode it in their own repertoire so they can recall the skills

Reproduction—they must try out the skill through practice and rehearsal

Reinforcement—if the reproduction results in positive outcomes (reinforcement) it is likely to continue

Learning Theories: Social Cognitive Theory

2. Self-efficacy: judgments people have about their ability to successfully perform a specific task

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Self-efficacy has a strong effect on people’s attitudes, emotions, and behaviour

Influences the activities people choose to perform, the amount of effort and persistence devoted to a task, their affective and stress reactions, and performance outcomes

Self-Efficacy

Self-efficacy is influenced by 4 sources of information (in order of importance):

Task performance outcomes

Observation

Verbal persuasion and social influence

Physiological/emotional state

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Learning Theories: Social Cognitive Theory

Self-regulation: involves managing one’s own behaviour.

Self-regulated learning involves the use of affective, cognitive, and behavioural processes during a learning experience to reach a desired level of achievement

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Self-regulated learning involves the use of affective, cognitive, and behavioural processes during a learning experience to reach a desired level of achievement

Self-regulation training leads to improvements in skill acquisition, maintenance, and performance

Learning Theories: Social Cognitive Theory

Self-regulation is a goal-oriented cyclical process that involves:

Observing and monitoring one’s own behaviour (self-monitoring) as well as the behaviour of others

Setting performance goals (goal setting)

Practising and rehearsing new and desired behaviours

Keeping track of one’s progress and performance

Comparing performance with one’s goals (self-evaluation)

Rewarding oneself for goal achievement (self-reinforcement

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Implications of Conditioning Theory and Social Cognitive Theory for Training

Conditioning

Trainees should be encouraged and reinforced throughout the training process and training will be more effective

Training tasks should be broken into meaningful parts so that trainees can be reinforced as they learn each part (shaping), are reinforced for performing the entire task during training (chaining), and are reinforced for on-the-job performance (generalization)

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Trainees should be encouraged and reinforced throughout the training process and training will be more effective

Implications of Conditioning Theory and Social Cognitive Theory for Training

Social cognitive

Importance of training design in improving learning

Consider use of behaviour modelling, increasing self-efficacy, and teaching trainees about self-regulation in design of training

Self-regulation prompts

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Importance of training design in improving learning

Consider use of behaviour modelling, increasing self-efficacy, and teaching trainees about self-regulation in design of training

Adult Learning Theory

Andragogy:

An adult-oriented approach to learning that takes into account the differences between adult and child learners

Pedagogy:

The traditional approach to learning used to educate children and youth

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Adults differ from children; adults have a great deal of knowledge and work-related experience they bring into a training program

They like to know why they are learning something, the practical implications of what they are learning, and its relevance to their problems and needs

Adults are problem-centred in their approach to learning and prefer to be self-directed

They are motivated to learn by extrinsic and intrinsic factors

Andragogy is a term coined by adult learning theorist Malcolm Knowles and suggests an adult-oriented approach to learning (vs. pedagogy, the traditional approach of learning used to educate children and youth)

Adult Learning Theory

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Andragogy

Six core assumptions about the adult learner:

Need to know

Learner’s self-concept

Learner’s experience

Readiness to learn

Orientation to learning

Motivation to learn

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Learning goal orientation: most concerned about developing competence by acquiring new skills and mastering new tasks

Prove performance goal orientation: concerned about favourable judgments about their performance and demonstrating their capabilities

Avoid performance goal orientation: concerned about avoiding negative judgments from others about their performance

Learning goals: process-oriented goals that focus on the learning process

Performance goals: outcome-oriented goals that focus attention on the achievement of specific performance outcomes

Implications of Adult Learning Theory for Training

Influences every stage of learning process

Importance of design and instruction as a joint collaborative process between trainer and trainees

Adults should have input into the training they need and will receive (objectives, topics, content) as well as how it is designed (training methods)

Learning should be collaborative and supportive

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Impacts at every stage of learning process

Importance of design and instruction as a joint process between the trainer and trainees

Adults should have input into the training they will receive (objectives, topics, content) as well as how it is designed (training methods)

Learning should be collaborative and supportive

Implications of Adult Learning Theory for Training

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Impacts at every stage of learning process

Importance of design and instruction as a joint process between the trainer and trainees

Adults should have input into the training they will receive (objectives, topics, content) as well as how it is designed (training methods)

Learning should be collaborative and supportive

Motivation

The degree of persistent effort that one directs toward a goal

Motivation has to do with effort, or how hard one works; persistence, or the extent to which one keeps at a task; and direction, or the extent to which one applies effort and persistence toward a meaningful goal

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Learning goal orientation: most concerned about developing competence by acquiring new skills and mastering new tasks

Prove performance goal orientation: concerned about favourable judgments about their performance and demonstrating their capabilities

Avoid performance goal orientation: concerned about avoiding negative judgments from others about their performance

Learning goals: process-oriented goals that focus on the learning process

Performance goals: outcome-oriented goals that focus attention on the achievement of specific performance outcomes

Goal-Setting Theory

A goal is the object or aim of an action

Goals are motivational as they direct people’s efforts and lead to the development of strategies

They require:

Specificity

Challenge

Feedback

Commitment

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Learning goal orientation: most concerned about developing competence by acquiring new skills and mastering new tasks

Prove performance goal orientation: concerned about favourable judgments about their performance and demonstrating their capabilities

Avoid performance goal orientation: concerned about avoiding negative judgments from others about their performance

Learning goals: process-oriented goals that focus on the learning process

Performance goals: outcome-oriented goals that focus attention on the achievement of specific performance outcomes

Proximal and Distal Goals

A distal goal is a long-term or end goal, such as achieving a certain level of sales performance

A proximal goal is a short-term goal or sub-goal that is instrumental for achieving a distal goal

Proximal goals are especially important for complex tasks

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Learning goal orientation: most concerned about developing competence by acquiring new skills and mastering new tasks

Prove performance goal orientation: concerned about favourable judgments about their performance and demonstrating their capabilities

Avoid performance goal orientation: concerned about avoiding negative judgments from others about their performance

Learning goals: process-oriented goals that focus on the learning process

Performance goals: outcome-oriented goals that focus attention on the achievement of specific performance outcomes

Goal Orientation

Goal orientation refers to a dispositional or situational goal preference in achievement situations

Key concepts related to goal orientation include:

A learning goal orientation

A prove performance goal orientation

An avoid performance goal orientation

A learning goal

A performance goald

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Learning goal orientation: most concerned about developing competence by acquiring new skills and mastering new tasks

Prove performance goal orientation: concerned about favourable judgments about their performance and demonstrating their capabilities

Avoid performance goal orientation: concerned about avoiding negative judgments from others about their performance

Learning goals: process-oriented goals that focus on the learning process

Performance goals: outcome-oriented goals that focus attention on the achievement of specific performance outcomes

What Are the Implications of Goal-Setting Theory for Training?

Prior to training:

Participants should have specific and challenging goals for learning

Special attention needs to be given to the stage at which goals are set and the complexity of the task

Consider the goal orientation of trainees and the type of goals that are set for training

Learning goals that focus on skill development are particularly important for learning

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Prior to training: Participants should have challenging goals for learning

Prior to and after: Participants should be provided with feedback so they know whether they have achieved goals

Setting specific and challenging goals should improve trainees’ motivation to learn as well as performance on task

What Are the Implications of Goa- Setting Theory for Training?

Prior to and after:

Provide feedback so trainees know whether they have achieved goals

Setting specific and challenging goals should improve trainee’s motivation to learn as well as performance on task

Learning goals should be set for learning new tasks and performance goals for motivating performance once learning and task mastery have been achieved

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Prior to training: Participants should have challenging goals for learning

Prior to and after: Participants should be provided with feedback so they know whether they have achieved goals

Setting specific and challenging goals should improve trainees’ motivation to learn as well as performance on task

Training Motivation

The direction, intensity, and persistence of learning-directed behaviour in training contexts (motivation to learn)

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Trainer/manager assesses trainee motivation prior to training

Ensure trainees are motivated to learn

Management should try to influence factors that predict motivation to learn

Training Motivation

Personality and individual variables that predict training motivation:

Locus of control

Achievement motivation

Anxiety

Conscientiousness

Self-efficacy

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Training Motivation

Job and career variables that predict training motivation:

Job involvement

Organizational commitment

Career planning

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Training Motivation

Organizational variables that predict training motivation:

Supervisor support

Peer support

Positive climate

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Training Motivation

Training motivation is related to training outcomes:

Declarative knowledge

Skill acquisition

Trainee reactions

Application of training on-the-job

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What Are the Implications of Training Motivation for Training?

Trainer/manager must assess trainee motivation and personality prior to training

Ensure trainees are motivated to learn

Try to influence factors that predict motivation to learn (e.g., self-efficacy)

Consider situational factors that influence training motivation (e.g., peer and supervisor support)

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Trainer/manager assesses trainee motivation prior to training

Ensure trainees are motivated to learn

Management should try to influence factors that predict motivation to learn

A Model of Training Effectiveness

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This model of training effectiveness is based on the link from training to learning and retention; training leads to declarative knowledge, the acquisition of skills and their retention over time, which impacts individual behaviour and performance and ultimately organizational effectiveness

Trainee attitudes (job attitudes) toward learning and one’s job including attitudinal variables: job involvement, job satisfaction, and organizational commitment

Cognitive ability (an individual's basic information-processing capacities) and cognitive resources determine how much and how quickly people learn

Self-efficacy (beliefs people have about their ability to successfully perform a specific task)

Training motivation is a strong predictor of learning and training outcomes

Personality characteristics: those with an internal locus of control and a high need for achievement, learn more during training

Summary

Identified learning as the major goal of training and development

Described difference between formal and informal learning

Described learning outcomes and their implications for training

Identified three stages of learning (declarative knowledge, knowledge compilation, and procedural knowledge)

Explored Kolb’s and Fleming’s learning styles as part of learning process

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Summary

Discussed two major learning theories (conditioning and social cognitive) as well as adult learning theory

Described goal-setting theory and implications for training

Explained training motivation and its predictors and consequences

Identified a model of training effectiveness and its linkages to effective training

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Key Terms

Achievement motivation

ACT theory

Andragogy

Avoid performance goal orientation (APGO)

Chaining

Cognitive ability

Conscientiousness

Core self-evaluations

Declarative knowledge

Distal goal

Fleming’s learning style

Generalization

Goal

Goal orientation

Job involvement

Knowledge compilation

Kolb’s learning style

Learning

Learning goal orientation (LGO)

Learning goals

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Key Terms

Learning cycle

Learning style

Locus of control

Motivation

Observation

Pedagogy

Performance goals

Procedural knowledge

Prove performance goal orientation (PPGO)

Proximal goal

Resource allocation theory

Self-efficacy

Self-regulated learning

Self-regulation

Self-regulation prompts

Shaping

Social learning

Training motivation

VARK

70-20-10 model

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