Psygchology
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SAIntroCh8.pptxHUMAN DEVELOPMENT
Chapter 8
PSYCHOLOGY DEBORAH M. LICHT MISTY G. HULL COCO BALLANTYNE
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Voices
GIRL WITH POTENTIAL
Ericka Harley was 16 years old and starting her junior year of high school when she found out she was pregnant.
Her mother, Joan, was disappointed to discover that her daughter, an honor-roll student, would soon be a mom; she had hoped Ericka might attend college and enjoy a successful career.
Would Ericka ever make it to college?
The Study of Human Development (part 1)
DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
Refers to field of psychology that examines physical, cognitive, and socioemotional change
The Study of Human Development (part 2)
Socioemotional development
Refers to social behaviors, emotions, and changes experienced in relationships, feelings, and overall disposition
Physical development
Involves maturation wherein the body follows a universal, biologically driven progression in a generally predictable pattern
Cognitive development
Includes changes in memory, problem solving, decision making, language, and intelligence that tend to follow a universal course early in life and considerable variability with age
The Study of Human Development (part 3)
BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL PERSPECTIVE
Recognizes contributions and interplay of biological, psychological, and social forces facing human development
THREE MAJOR THEMES OR DEBATES
Stages or continuity
Hereditary and environmental influences
Stability and change
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The Study of Human Development (part 4)
RESEARCH METHODS USED TO STUDY DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES
Cross-sectional method
Examines people of different ages at a single point in time
Longitudinal method
Examines one sample of people over a period of time to determine age-related changes
Cross-sequential method
Examines groups of people of different ages, following them across time
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Genetics, Conception, and Prenatal Development (part 1)
CHROMOSOMES AND GENES
Chromosomes
Inherited threadlike structures composed of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Molecule that provides the instructions for the development and production of cells
Gene
Specified segment of a DNA molecule
Genetics, Conception, and Prenatal Development (part 2)
CHROMOSOMES, DNA, AND GENES
Every cell in your body, except red blood cells and sex cells (sperm or egg), contains a full set of 23 chromosome pairs like those shown here.
These 23 chromosome pairs contain the full blueprint for you as a complete, unique person. The primary component of each chromosome is a single, tightly wound molecule of DNA. Within that DNA are around 21,000 genes (Pennisi, 2012, September 5), each determining specific traits such as hair texture. Note the sex chromosomes (X and Y) on the lower right, indicating that the sex is male. Photo: CNRI/Science Source.
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Genetics, Conception, and Prenatal Development (part 3)
CHROMOSOMES AND GENES
How exactly did you get your genes from your biological parents?
Genes are found in chromosomes.
Chromosomes inherited from biological parents.
Sperm and egg both contain 23 chromosomes = 23 pairs.
Twenty-third chromosome pair determines genetic sex.
XX = female; XY = male
Genetics, Conception, and Prenatal Development (part 4)
Researchers with the Human Genome Project have decoded the entire human genome, which contains about 21,000 DNA segments known as genes (Pennisi, 2012, September 5).
Genes are the blueprints for proteins that endow you with a unique set of traits, including eye color, hair texture, and—to a certain extent—psychological characteristics.
The colored lights are an artistic representation of the human genome, the complete set of DNA found in most cells in the body.
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Genetics, Conception, and Prenatal Development (part 5)
CHROMOSOMES AND GENES
Genotype
Includes an individual’s complete collection of genes
Does not change in response to the environment but interacts with it—outcome is not predetermined
Phenotype
Refers to the observable characteristics of an individual that are the result of this interaction
Includes unique physical, psychological, and behavioral characteristics
Epigenetics
Examines the process involved in the development of phenotypes
Genetics, Conception, and Prenatal Development (part 6)
CHROMOSOMES AND GENES
The dominant gene governs the expression of inherited characteristics.
The recessive gene cannot overcome the influence of the dominant gene.
The “widow’s peak,” or V-shaped hairline, is thought to be determined by the presence of a single, dominant gene (Chiras, 2015). The man on the left must have at least one dominant widow’s peak gene, while the man on the right has two recessive straight hairline genes.
Genetics, Conception, and Prenatal Development (part 7)
FROM ZYGOTE TO EMBRYO TO FETUS
Zygote
Single cell formed by the union of a sperm cell and an egg
Travels down the fallopian tube while dividing into more cells
Multiples
Monozygotic twins develop from one egg inseminated at conception.
Dizygotic twins occur when two eggs are inseminated by two different sperm.
Genetics, Conception, and Prenatal Development (part 8)
Germinal period (conception to end of 2nd week)
Implanting in uterine wall; rapid growth
Embryo period (3rd to 8th week)
Cell differentiation; formation of major organs and systems begin
Heart begins to beat; spinal cord and intestinal systems develop by end of period
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Genetics, Conception, and Prenatal Development (part 9)
Fetal period (2nd month to birth)
Rapid weight gain; clear sleep-wake cycles; all organs, systems, and structures fully developed at birth
Brain weight one quarter of adult size
Prenatal Development and Periods of Critical Growth
Genetics, Conception, and Prenatal Development (part 10)
Teratogens
Embryos are not protected from all environmental dangers.
Teratogens can damage a zygote, embryo, or fetus.
Damage depends on the agent, timing, and duration of exposure.
Genetics, Conception, and Prenatal Development (part 11)
CAN YOU IDENTIFY THE POTENTIAL EFFECTS OF TERATOGENS IN EACH OF THESE CATEGORIES?
Drugs
Environmental factors
Infections
Maternal disease
From conception until birth, the developing human is nestled deep inside a woman’s body, but it remains vulnerable to threats from the outside. See Table 8.1 for some common teratogens and their effects.
See Table 8.1 for additional information about the dangers of teratogens. From conception until birth, the developing human is nestled deep inside a woman’s body, but it remains vulnerable to threats from the outside. Listed here are some common teratogens and their effects. Information from Brent (2004)
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Genetics, Conception, and Prenatal Development (part 12)
THE FETAL PERIOD
Between 2 months and birth (fetus)
Average birth weight around 7 pounds by North American standards
Sleep-wake cycles demonstrated
FETAL ALCOHOL SYNDROME (FAS)
Delays in development that result from moderate to heavy alcohol use during pregnancy
Symptoms may include physical growth delays, learning disabilities, and problems with anxiety, attention, and impulse regulation.
Infancy and Child Development (part 1)
NEWBORN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Newborn reflexes
Automatic responses to stimuli
Some necessary for survival; other no obvious purpose
Examples
Rooting, sucking, grasping, Babinski, stepping, Moro
See Table 8.2 for additional information about newborn reflexes.
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Infancy and Child Development (part 2)
NEWBORN GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT
Newborn senses
Prefer human faces as opposed to geometric shapes
Discriminate mother’s voice shortly after birth
Distinguish smell of mother’s breast milk
Prefer sweet tastes, react to sour tastes, notice differences in breast milk taste
React to sense of touch
Respond to pain
Have blurred vision for several months
Infancy and Child Development (part 3)
Infancy and Child Development (part 4)
THE GROWING BRAIN
Synaptic pruning
Increase in neural connections is not uniform in brain
Unused synaptic connections eliminated
Decrease in neural connection by 40–50% by puberty
Rosenzweig’s rats
Rosenzweig and colleagues demonstrated how environment influences animal brain development.
Rats with an enriched environment experienced greater increases in brain weight and synaptic connections.
Infancy and Child Development (part 5)
THE LANGUAGE EXPLOSION
Behaviorism and language
Proposes that all behavior—including language—is learned through associations, reinforcers, and observations
Suggests language is learned through positive attention to correct behavior and unpleasant attention to incorrect behavior
Infancy and Child Development (part 6)
THE LANGUAGE EXPLOSION (LAD)
Language acquisition device
Provides universal, innate mechanism for language learning (Chomsky)
Infant-directed speech (IDS)
Used by caregivers worldwide and stimulates infant attention to socially appropriate partners
Infancy and Child Development (part 7)
THE LANGUAGE EXPLOSION
Language in the environment
The amount of language in the home correlates with SES.
The quality of speech input is also critical to language development.
A lag in reading, math, and academic achievement in general is found in children of lower SES status who are beginning school.
Infancy and Child Development (part 8)
THE LANGUAGE EXPLOSION
Sequence of acquisition
Cooing
Babbling
Telegraphic speech
NATURE AND NURTURE
GENIE THE “FERAL CHILD”
In 1970, a social worker in Arcadia, California, discovered 13-year-old “Genie.” Between the ages of 20 months and 13 years, Genie suffered abuse, deprivation, and neglect. She was deprived of physical activity, sensory stimulation, and affection.
Efforts to build Genie’s vocabulary had mixed success. She learned basic syntax principles and eventually spoke meaningful sentences. There were, however, certain linguistic skills that could not be mastered.
Why couldn’t Genie master these certain linguistic skills? What implications does this have for all child language development?
Infancy and Child Development (part 9)
PIAGET AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
One of first to suggest infant cognitive abilities
Posits that child and adult cognition are different; cognitive development takes place in stages
Senrorimotor: Object permanence
Preoperational: Egocentrism; conservation errors
Concrete operational: Logical thinking in reference to concrete objects and circumstances
Formal operational: More logical and systematic thinking
See INFOGRAPHIC 8.3 for additional information about Piaget’s theory of cognitive development.
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Infancy and Child Development (part 10)
KEY PIAGETIAN TERMS
Schema
Collection of ideas that represent a basic unit of understanding
Assimilation
Using existing information and ideas to understand new knowledge and experiences
Accommodation
Restructuring of old ideas to make a place for new information
Infancy and Child Development (part 11)
Infancy and Child Development (part 12)
PIAGET AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
The critics
Cognitive stage with distinct characteristic; transitions more likely to be continuous
Cognitive abilities underestimated
Object permanence occurs sooner.
Formal operational stage may not be last stage; distinctions are needed between adolescents and adults of various ages.
Infancy and Child Development (part 13)
VYGOTSKY AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Overview
Social and cultural factors influence cognition.
Children are apprentices in relation to more capable and experienced others (zone of proximal development).
Scaffolding
Children are pushed to go just beyond what they are competent and capable of doing, while providing help in a decreasing manner.
Infancy and Child Development (part 14)
KAGAN
Temperament
Characteristic differences in behavioral patterns and emotional reactions that are evident from birth
High-reactive infants
Exhibit much distress with unfamiliar stimuli
Low-reactive infants
Do not respond to stimuli with great distress
Infancy and Child Development (part 15)
THOMAS AND CHESS
Temperament
Easy: Follow regular schedules; easily soothed; transition easily; 40%
Difficult: Erratic schedule; poor transitioning; irritable and unhappy; 10%
Slow to warm up: Not fond of change; 15%
More than one type of temperament: 39%
Infancy and Child Development (part 16)
THE HARLOWS AND THEIR MONKEYS
Research by Harry and Margaret Harlow and colleagues at the University of Wisconsin showed that physical comfort is important for the socioemotional development of these animals.
What do you think the monkeys did when given the choice between a wire mesh “mother” that provided milk and a cloth-covered “mother” without milk?
When given the choice between a wire mesh “mother” that provided milk and a cloth-covered “mother” without milk, most of the monkeys opted to snuggle with the cuddly cloth-covered one (Harlow, 1958).
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Infancy and Child Development (part 17)
MARY AINSWORTH
Attachment
Refers to degree to which infant feels emotional connection with primary caregivers
Secure attachment
Avoidant attachment
Ambivalent attachment
Infancy and Child Development (part 18)
ATTACHMENT
The critics
Most of early work used mothers; subsequent research should examine attachment to multiple caregivers.
Artificial environment created and does not mirror natural environment.
Cross-cultural differences not always addressed.
Infancy and Child Development (part 19)
ERIKSON
Psychosocial stages
Proposed that human development is marked by eight psychological stages from infancy to old age
Suggested that each stage is marked by developmental task or emotional crisis to be resolved
Unsuccessful resolution results in difficulty at next stage
Infancy and Child Development (part 20)
ERIKSON’S STAGES ASSOCIATED WITH INFANCY AND CHILDHOOD
Trust versus mistrust
Autonomy versus shame and doubt
Initiative versus guilt
Check Table 8.3 for a discussion of each stage and its positive and negative resolutions.
Adolescence (part 1)
PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Key terms
Adolescence
Puberty
Primary sex characteristics
Secondary sex characteristics
Adolescence (part 2)
PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Menarche
Involves the point at which menstruation begins
Can begin as early as 9 or after age 14; typical age is between 12 and 13
Spermarche
Involves time when boys experience first ejaculation
STIs
More than half of 15- to 24-year-olds affected by new infections
Adolescent infections especially risky; often untreated
Adolescence (part 3)
PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Timing and effects of maturation
Early maturing girls: More negative outcomes; social anxiety, higher risk of emotional problems and unhealthy and delinquent behaviors; lower self-confidence
Early maturing boys: Generally, a more positive experience, but aggressive behavior, cheating, temper tantrums common
Adolescence (part 4)
PHYSICAL AND COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Formal operations (Piaget)
Use of deductive reasoning and critical thinking begins.
Characterized by abstract reasoning, classification, symbol use, thinking beyond moment, and considering many possibilities and hypothetical situations
Adolescent egocentrism
Involves intense focus on self and feelings of immortality
Can lead to an increase in risky behaviors
Adolescence (part 5)
Adolescent brain
Significant limbic system development compared with the prefrontal cortex can lead to an increase in risk-taking behavior.
Increased myelination of axons occurs in the prefrontal cortex, which is not yet fully developed.
Adolescents may not foresee the possible consequences of reward-seeking activities.
Should this influence the decision about teenagers and the death penalty?
Too Young
A teen inmate sits in her room at a maximum-security juvenile facility in Illinois. As a result of the 2005 Roper v. Simmons decision (Borra, 2005), defendants being tried for crimes committed before age 18 are no longer candidates for the death penalty. The U.S. Supreme Court arrived at this decision after carefully weighing evidence submitted by the American Psychological Association (APA) and others, which suggests that the juvenile mind is still developing and vulnerable to impulsivity and poor decision making (APA, 2013).
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Adolescence (part 6)
SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN ADOLESCENCE
Erikson’s stage of ego identity versus role confusion
Involves adolescent identity formation and trying out new roles
Influenced by positive resolution and success at earlier stages
Positive resolution = Stronger sense of values, beliefs, and goals
Negative resolution = Role confusion
Adolescence (part 7)
PARENTS AND ADOLESCENTS
Relationships between teens and parents are generally positive, but most involve some degree of conflict.
Many disputes center on everyday issues, like clothing and chores, but the seemingly endless bickering does have a deeper meaning.
The adolescent is breaking away from his parents, establishing himself as an autonomous person.
Adolescent (part 8)
SOCIAL MEDIA AND PSYCHOLOGY
The social networking teen machine
Approximately 8% of Internet-using teenagers say they have been bullied online in the past year; 88% have observed others being “mean or cruel” on a social media site.
QUESTIONS TO CONSIDER
How might this behavior impact on the socioemotional development for the bullied? For the bully?
What advice would you give to parents?
Adolescence (part 9)
KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Kohlberg
Focused on specific changes in beliefs about right and wrong
Noted that environmental influences and interactions with others support continued moral development
Proposed three sequential, universal levels of moral development:
Preconventional moral reasoning
Conventional moral reasoning
Postconventional moral reasoning
Used a variety of fictional moral dilemma stories to determine the stages of moral reasoning
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Adolescence (part 10)
KOHLBERG’S STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT
Criticisms
Women’s moral reasoning not represented; importance of caring and responsibility discounted (Gilligan)
Theory primarily applicable to Western, collectivist cultures
Moral behavior defined, but not predicted
Adolescence (part 11)
EMERGING ADULTHOOD
Occurs between age 18 and 25 years
Involves period of exploration and opportunity
Influenced by dependency on families for longer periods of time
Provides opportunities for seeking relationships, education, and new world views
Support System
(Left to right, and front) Joan, Ericka, Ericka’s mentor Aisha, and Niyah. In addition to Ericka’s grandmother, these are the people who helped keep Ericka motivated and inspired throughout college.
Ericka discovered Generation Hope, a non-profit organization devoted to supporting teen parent college students.
Ericka considered withdrawing from college at one point, but then she discovered Generation Hope, a non-profit organization devoted to supporting teen parents as they work toward college degrees. In addition to graduating cum laude, Ericka served as president of the Student Government Association and belonged to two honor societies. Courtesy Ericka Harley.
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Adulthood (part 1)
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Early adulthood
Sensory systems and muscular and cardiovascular ability are sharp.
Hearing starts to decline; lifestyle choices affect health.
Fertility-related changes occur.
Middle adulthood
Genes influence height and bone mass; exercise slows shrinking process.
Wrinkles, sags, and skin spots may appear; hair thins and turns grey; hearing loss continues; eyesight may decline; bones weaken.
Adulthood (part 2)
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Late adulthood
Characterized by decline in physical and psychological functions
Vision deteriorates (cataracts, impaired night vision).
Hearing declines; reaction time increases; information processed more slowly; memory deteriorates.
Exercise fosters development of new neural networks.
Adulthood (part 3)
Early adulthood
Measures of aptitude remain stable from early to middle adulthood.
Processing speed begins to decline.
Middle and late adulthood
Cognitive function does not necessarily decrease.
After age 70, decline is more apparent; some skills become more refined.
Crystallized intelligence
Fluid intelligence
From the Pages of SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN
JOIN A CLUB, STAY SHARP
Group social activity beats one-on-one encounters for preventing cognitive decline.
Research findings suggest that the mental boost from group activity becomes better with age.
Why does this occur?
Group relationships may sharpen skills by requiring maintenance efforts and reinforcing self-identity.
Adulthood (part 4)
SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT: EARLY, MIDDLE, AND LATE ADULTHOOD
Erikson and adulthood
Young adulthood: Intimacy versus isolation
Middle adulthood: Generativity versus stagnation
Late adulthood: Integrity versus despair
Adulthood (part 5)
PARENTING
Baumrind identified four parenting behavioral styles:
Authoritarian parenting
Authoritative parenting
Permissive parenting
Uninvolved parenting
How would you describe each of these styles to prospective parents?
Adulthood (part 6)
SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT: EARLY, MIDDLE, AND LATE ADULTHOOD
Growing old with grace
As of 2014, fewer than 1% of Americans older than 65 lived in a nursing home.
Most older adults in the United States enjoy active, healthy, independent lives.
Positive emotions are more frequent; emotional stability increases; stress and anger decreases.
Death and Dying
DEATH AND DYING
Kübler-Ross’ theory regarding imminent death (2009)
Denial
Anger
Bargaining
Depression
Acceptance
Across the World
DEATH IN DIFFERENT CULTURES
Views of death are related to religion and culture.
Every culture has its own collection of ideas about death.
Like any developmental step, the experience of death is shaped by countless social, psychological, and biological factors.
