Prompt for Module 4 Discussion:

140 MAHAYANA UNlVERSALlSM AND THE SENSE OF HIERARCHY

SAICHO: VOW OF UNINTERRUPTED STUDY OF THE

LOTUS SUTRA

This vow taken by monks on Mount Hiei expresses Saicho's (and their own) commit­ ment to the Lotus teaching as expounded by Zhiyi and practiced according to his prescriptions for the calming and contemplation discipline. It also invokes the Imperial authority of Kanmu as the great patron and supporter of Saicho's project and, by its reference to the Golden Light Siitra, reaffirms the monastery's role as protector of the state.

The disciple of Buddha and student of the One Vehicle [ name and court rank to be filled in] this day respectfully affirms before the Three Treasures that the saintly Emperor Kanmu, on behalf of Japan and as a manifestation of his un­ conditional compassion, established the Lotus sect and had the Lotus Sutra, its commentary, and the essays on "Calming and Contemplation" copied and bound together with hundreds of other volumes and installed them in the seven great temples. Constantly did he promote the Single and Only Vehicle, and he united all the people so that they might ride together in the ox cart of Mahay­ ana 10 to the ultimate destination, enlightenment. Every year assemblies 11 on the Golden Light Sutra were held to protect the state. He selected twelve stu­ dents and established a seminary on top of Mount Hiei where the Tripi\aka, the ritual implements, and the sacred images were enshrined. These treasures he considered the guardian of the Law and its champion during the great night of ignorance.

It is for this reason that on the fifteenth day of the second moon of 809, Saicho, with a few members of the same faith, established the uninterrupted study ·of the siltra of the Lotus of the Wondrous Law.

I vow that, as long as heaven endures and earth lasts, to the most distant term of the future, this study will continue without the intermission of a single day, at the rate of one volume every two days. Thus the doctrine of universal enlightenment will be preserved forever and spread throughout Japan to the farthest confines. May all attain Buddhahood!

[Dengyo Daishi zenshil IV, 749 (1912 ed.)]

10. The three vehicles are described in the Lotus Sutra; of them the oxcart stands for

Mahayana. 11. These assemblies, often called gosaie ("imperial vegetarian entertainments" of monks),

were held during the first moon of the Imperial Palace from 802, when Kanmu founded them,

until 1467 (see De Visser, Ancient Buddhism in Japan, pp. 471-479). The text studied was the

Golden Light Sutra.

Wm. Theodore de Bary et al., ed., Sources of Japanese Tradition, 2nd ed. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2001)

Saicho and Mount Hiei 141

SAICHO: EXPLAINING THE PRECEPTS

The rather long essay of this title, of which an excerpt is given here, was written and presented to Emperor Saga in 819. It was intended as an ·answer to the attacks on Saicho and the Tendai teachings by the Nara monks and to assert the need for a true Mahayana ordination hall, independent of the Nara ones that were based, as Saicho avers, on a negative Hinayana concept of the discipline. Saicho also inveighs against the oppression of the Nara superintendents who still adhered to the narrow view of religion repudiated by the Buddha in the Lotus Sutra.

I now initiate the discipline of the One Vehicle in order to profit and delight all sentient beings; this essay has been written to initiate the discipline of uni­ versality. I offer my prayers to the everlasting Three Treasures to extend their invisible and visible protection so that the discipline will be transmitted unham­ pered and unharmed, protecting the nation for all time to come. May all sen­ tient beings who lead worldly or spiritual lives ward off what is wrong, put an end to all evil, and protect the seed of Buddhahood; may they awaken to the universal nature of things and partake of spiritual joy in the land of tranquil light.

I have heard that a gentleman of the laity should not pride himself on his superiority-how much less should I, a monk, discuss the failings of others? If, however, I followed such a philosophy and kept silent, the discipline of uni­ versality might perish. If, on the other hand, I were to speak out boldly, as is the fashion nowadays, there would be a never-ending controversy. I have there­ fore compiled this essay elucidating the discipline. I submit it to the emperor. 12

His Majesty the emperor is equal to the sun and the moon in enlightenment, and his virtue does not differ from that of heaven and earth. His administration is in accord with the five human relationships, 13 and his religious faith is based on the teachings of Buddha. Nothing falls outside the scope of his great benev­ olence; there is no wise statesman but serves the court. The Buddha sun shines brightly again, and the Way of inner realization flourishes. Now is the moment for the Mahayana discipline of the Perfect Doctrine to be proclaimed and promoted; it is the day when the temple should be erected. I have therefore cited the texts which describe the three kinds of temples 14 in making my request for a Mahayana Hall where [the image of] MafijushrT may be installed and bodhisattva monks be trained. When a white ox cart is granted, the three other

12. Emperor Saga, reigned from 809 to 823 .

13. Of Confucianism.

14. Mahayana, Hinayana, and combined Mahayana-Hfnayana,

142 MAHAYANA UNIVERSALISM AND THE SENSE OF HIERARCHY

vehicles are unnecessary.'' When a positive teaching has been. found, why should we use the negativism of others? 16 The Lotus Sutra says, "Choose the straight way and cast aside expediencies; preach the peerless doctrine." It also says, "What we should practice now is Buddha's wisdom alone."

At present the six supervisors" wield so much power as to suppress the Bud­ dha's discipline. The hordes of monks have vociferously been demanding that I debate with them; in three hundred ways have they slashed my heart. How then can I remain silent? Instead of speech, however, I have used my brush to express the barest fraction of my thoughts.

[Dengyo Daishi zenshu, IV, 749 (1912 ed.)]

15. The white ox was freguently used as a symbol for Mahayana. The other three vehicles were the means of enli

g htenment expounded by the Hinayana and Quasi-Mahayana sects.

16. Saich6 considered that the Hinayana desire to achieve Nirvana as the extinction of the self was as negative as "getting rid of excrement," the image he uses here.

17. Each of the six sects of the Nara period had its own "supervisor" or nominal head.

More text to follow after this page

Saichi5 and Mount Hiei 145

REGULATIONS FOR STUDENTS OF THE MOUNTAIN SCHOOL IN SIX

ARTICLES I

Saicho's new regulations set forth his threefold conception of the vocation of bodhi­ sattva monks who will both propagate the Mahayana teaching and engage in socially beneficial activities. These rules are intended specifically for monks authorized to pursue the Tendai Lotus teaching, but in addition to this exoteric (public) doctrine, they are to be versed in some esoteric mysteries, as well as with the standard texts associated with "Buddhism as the protector of the state." This broad program is to occupy them during their twelve-year confinement on the mountains, whose rigors supplant the strict observance of vinaya discipline

The original version of these regulations, drawn up in 818, is in three sections, of which the first two are translated here. The first two paragraphs are often cited at Mount Hiei as a kind of charter for the school.

What is the treasure of the nation? The religious nature is a treasure, and he who possesses this nature is the treasure of the nation. That is why it was said of old that ten pearls big as pigeon's eggs do not constitute the treasure of a nation, but only when a person casts his light over a part of the country can one speak of a treasure of the nation. A philosopher of old '8 once said that he who is capable in action but not in speech should be of service to the nation; but he who is capable both in action and speech is the treasure of the nation. Apart from these three groups, there are those who are capable neither of speech nor action: these are the betrayers l9 of the nation.

18. Mouzi, a late Han philosopher, who attempted to synthesize Buddhism, Confucianism,

and Taoism, according to Buddhism, which had the highest position. (Saicho quotes from Mouzi, p. 13b, Bing-jin-guan cang-shu ed.)

19, This word seems far too strong for the offense, and it may be a corruption in the text in

which Mouzi calls these people "mean" (or "lowly").

146 MAHAYANA UNIVERSALISM AND THE SENSE OF HIERARCHY

Buddhists who possess the religious nature are called in the we·st bodhisatt­ vas; in the east they are known as superior men. 20 They hold themselves re­ sponsible for all bad things while they credit others with all good things. For­ getful of themselves, they benefit others. This represents the summit of compassion.

Among Buddha's followers there are two kinds of monks, HTnayana and Mahayana; Buddhists possessing a religious nature belong to the later persua-

7 sion. However, in our eastern land only HTnayana is revered21 and not the Mahayana. T he Great Teaching is not yet spread; great men have not been able to rise. I fervently pray that in accordance with the wishes of the Emperor, 22 all Tendai students annually appointed will be trained in the Mahayana doc­ trines and become bodhisattva monks. 23

Regulations for the Two Students Annually Appointed by the Court

1, All annually appointed Tendai Lotus students, from this year 8!8 to all eternity, shall be of the Mahayana persuasion. They shall be granted Buddhist names without, however, having their own family names removed from the register. T hey shall be initiated into the Perfect Ten Good Precepts of Tendai when they become novices and, when they are ordained government seals will be requested for their certificates.

2. All Mahayana students, immediately after their ordination, shall be ad­ ministered the vows of Sons of Buddha and thus become bodhisattva monks. A government seal will be requested for the certificates of oaths. T hose who take the P recepts will be required to remain on Mount Hiei for twelve years without ever leaving the monastery. They shall study both disciplines.

3. All monks studying the Calming and Contemplation (shikan) discipline shall be required every day of the year to engage in constant study and discussion of the Lotus, Golden Light, Siltra of the Humane Kings, Protector, and other Mahayana sutras for safeguarding the nation.24

4- All monks who study the Vairochana discipline shall be required every day of the year to recite the True Words (mantra) of the Vairochana, the Pea-

20, Or "gentlemen" -the name given by Confucius to people who followed his code. 21. Even though Nara Buddhism was predominantly Mahayana, Saicho deprecated its con­

tinued adherence to vestiges of the so-called Hinayana. 22. Emperor Kanmu issued this order shortly before his death in 806. 23. That is, Mahayana monks, for the bodhisattva was held up by Mahayana Buddhism as

the ideal to be followed. 24- Japanese names for the sutras: Hokkek)'i5, Konkok)'o, Ninnok)'o, and Shugok)'o.

Saich/5 and Mount Hiei 147 cock, the Rope [ of salvation], the Wise King, and other sutras for safeguarding the nation. 25 5. Students of both disciplines shall be appointed to positions in keepingwith their achievements after twelve years' training and study. Those who are capable in both action and speech shall remain permanently on the mountain as leaders of the order: these are the treasures of the nation. Those who are capable in speech but not in action shall be teachers of the nation, and those capable in action but not in speech shall be of service to the nation. 6. Teachers and functionaries of the nation shall be appointed with official I licenses as transmitters of doctrine and national lecturers. The national lecturers shall be paid during their tenure of office the expenses of the annual summer retreat and provided with their robes. Funds for these expenses shall be depos­ited in the provincial offices where they will be supervised jointly by provincial and district governors. They shall also serve in undertakings which benefit the nation and the peo-. pie, such as the repair of ponds and canals, the reclamation of uncultivated land, the reparation of landslides, the construction of bridges and ships, the ' planting of trees and ramie26 bushes, the sowing of hemp and grasses, and the digging of wells and irrigation ditches. They shall also study the sutras and cultivate their minds but shall not engage in private agriculture or trading. If these provisions are followed, men possessing the religious nature will I spring up one after another throughout the country, and the Way of the Superior Man shall never die. Overcome by profound awe, I offer these articles of Tendai and respectfully request the imperial assent. Saich6, the Monk who formerly sought the Law in China [June 19, 818].

[Dengyo Daishi zenshi1 I, pp. 11-13 (1989 ed.)] REGULATIONS FOR STUDENTS OF THE MOUNTAIN SCHOOL II

The following regulations provide more specific provisions governing the life of the monastery and the content of the curriculum. Scripture studies have priority over meditative practice during the first six years, but the order is reversed in the last six. Confucian classics constitute one-third of the monks' textual studies, as if to acknowl­edge that a public philosophy and political ethos are not provided by the sutras avowing loyalty to the state and that the latter needs to be supplemented if substantive service to the state and society is to be realized. Details are lacking, however, on the classics to be read or on how strictly the regulations were followed. 25. Japanese names for the sutras: Dainichi-kyo, Kujaku-kyo, F'uku Kensaku Kannon-gyo, andIchiji Chorinn6-gyo. These represent the Esoteric discipline. 26. A plant whose fibers are similar to those of hemp in their properties and uses.

148 MAHAYANA UNIVERSALISM AND THE SENSE OF HIERARCHY

1. Twelve regular students of the Tendai sect will be appointed for terms of six years each. Each year as two places fall vacant, they are to be replaced by two new students.

The method of examining students will be as follows. All Tendai teachers will assemble in the Seminary Hall and there examine candidates on their recitations of the Lotus and Golden Light Sutras. When a student passes the examinations, his family name and the date of the examination will be reported to the government.

Students who have completed six years of study will be examined in the above manner. Students who fail to complete the course will not be examined. If any students withdraw, their names, together with those of the candidates for their places, should be reported to the government.

2. Regular students must provide their own clothing and board. Students who possess the proper mental ability and whose conduct is excellent but who cannot provide their own clothing and board shall be furnished by the mon­ astery with a document authorizing them to seek alms throughout the county for their expenses.

3. If a regular student's character does not accord with the monastic disci­ pline and he does not obey the regulations, a report will be made to the gov­ ernment requesting his replacement in accordance with the regulations.

+ Regular students are required to receive the Mahayana initiation during the year of their ordination. After the ceremony, they shall remain for twelve years within the gates of the monastery engaged in study and practice. During the first six years, the study of the sutras under a master will be their major occupation, with meditation and the observance of discipline their secondary pursuits. Two-thirds of their time will be devoted to Buddhism and the remain­ ing third to the Chinese classics. An extensive study of the sutras will be their duty, and teaching others about Buddhism, their work. During the second six years in residence, meditation and the observance of discipline will be their chief occupation, and the study of the si:itras their secondary pursuit. In the practice of Calming and Contemplation (shikan) students will be required to observe the four forms of meditation and in the esoteric practice will be required to recite the three sutras. 27

5. The names ofTendai students at the lchijo Shikan Monastery" on Mount Hiei, whether students with annual grants or privately enrolled, should not be removed from the rolls of temples with which they were originally affiliated. For the purposes of receiving provisions, they should nevertheless be assigned

27. The three basic sutras of Esoteric Buddhism: the Dainichi-kyo, the Kongocho-gyo, and

the Soshichi-kyo.

28. The temple's name may be translated literally as "of the one Vehicle for Calming and

Contemplation."

Saicho and Mount Hiei 149

to one of the wealthy temples in Omi. 29 In keeping with Mahayana pracfice, alms will be sought throughout the country to provide them with summer and winter robes. With the material needs of their bodies thus taken care of, they will be able to continue their studies without interruption. Once admitted to the monastery, it will be a fast rule for these students that a thatched hut will serve as their quarters and bamboo leaves as their seats. 30 They will value but slightly their own lives, reverencing the Law. They will strive to perpetuate the Law eternally and to safeguard the nation.

6. If ordained monks who belong to other sects and are not recipients of annual appointments wish of their ow�-f�e-;ill to spend twelve years on the mountain in order to study the two courses [ of study or practice], their original temple affiliation and the name of their master, together with documents from this monastery, must be deposited in the government office. When they have completed twelve years of study, they will be granted the title of master of the Law as in the case of the annual appointees of the Tendai sect. If they should fail to live up to the regulations, they are to be returned to the temple with which they were originally affiliated.

7. The request will be made that the court bestow the title of great master of the Law on students who have remained twelve years on the mountain and have studied and observed the disciplines in strict adherence to the regulations. The request will be made that the court bestow the title master of the Law on students who, although they may not be accomplished in their studies, have spent twelve years on the mountain without ever having left it.

If any members of the sect fail to observe the regulations and do not remain on the mountain or if, in spite of their having remained on the mountain, they have been guilty of numerous infractions of the Law or have failed to remain the full period, they will be removed permanently from the official register of the Tendai sect and returned to the temple with which they were originally affiliated.

8. Two lay attendants will be appointed to this Tendai monastery to supervise it alternately and to keep out robbers, liquor, and women. Thus the Buddhist Law will be upheld and the nation safeguarded.

The above eight articles are for the maintenance of the Buddhist Law and the benefit of the nation. They should serve the way of goodness.

The imperial assent is respectfully requested. Saicho, the Monk who formerly sought the Law in China [September 30,

818]. [Dengyo Daishi zensha I, pp. 13-16 (1989 ed.)]

29. The region near Lake Biw_a, where many rich immigrants, often of Chinese extraction,

were domiciled,

30. That is, they will lead a life of poverty.