Psychology Assignment

Vol.:(0123456789)

Behavior Analysis in Practice https://doi.org/10.1007/s40617-026-01162-4

DISCUSSION AND REVIEW PAPER

Exploring the Effects of Soft Skill Training among ABA Practitioners: A Systematic Review

Alyssa Barrera‑Lansford1  · Mark O’Reilly1 · Molly DeMayo1

Received: 8 September 2025 / Accepted: 22 January 2026 © The Author(s) 2026

Abstract Soft skills, such as communication, empathy, collaboration, and self-reflection, are increasingly recognized as essential for effective and ethical practice in the field of applied behavior analysis (ABA; Cowan & Kodak,2023; LeBlanc et al., 2020; Sellers et al., 2016). These competencies are foundational to compassionate care and culturally responsive practice, which support the development of strong therapeutic alliances with diverse clients and their families (Fong et al., 2016; Rohrer et al., 2021; Wright, 2019). The authors of this systematic review examined 11 peer reviewed studies that evaluated inter- ventions designed to enhance soft skills among ABA practitioners. They reviewed empirical studies to determine which skills were targeted, the effectiveness of interventions, how cultural relevance was incorporated, and whether participants' perspectives were considered. Findings indicated that most interventions were effective, with behavioral skills training (BST) emerging as the most used and successful approach. However, few studies explicitly addressed cultural responsive- ness (e.g., Tereshko et al., 2024) or incorporated participant input to ensure social validity (Leifler et al., 2022; Schwartz & Baer, 1991). Considering these findings, future research should aim to both evaluate interventions across culturally and linguistically diverse populations and integrate culturally responsive practices, and practitioner-centered feedback into future soft skill training programs.

Keywords Soft skills · Applied behavior analysis · Compassionate care · Cultural responsiveness

Soft skills, such as empathy, active listening, compassion, cultural responsiveness, collaboration, and self-reflection, are increasingly recognized as critical components of essen- tial practice in the field of applied behavior analysis (ABA). These skills encompass both interpersonal skills, which shape how practitioners engage with others, and intrapersonal skills, which support one’s ability to manage their own behaviors (Kechagias, 2011). Because researchers have used multiple overlapping terms to describe these behaviors and related repertoires (e.g., behavioral artistry, professional behaviors), the authors of this review use the term “soft skills” to pro- vide conceptual consistency across these interpersonal and intrapersonal domains. Collectively, these skills enable prac- titioners to build rapport, communicate effectively, and form strong therapeutic alliances (i.e., a cooperative, trust-based

relationship) that is frequently considered foundational to high-quality ABA service delivery (Ensor et al., 2024; Fer- nandes et al., 2021; Kechagias, 2011; Laker & Powell, 2011; Plattner & Anderson, 2023).

Researchers have increasingly examined how soft skills shape families’ experiences with ABA services. Practi- tioners who possess strong soft skills can enhance family satisfaction, increase treatment adherence, and improve clinical outcomes (Taylor et al., 2018). In addition, Buk- szpan et al. (2025) and Callahan et al. (2019) showed that parents preferred practitioners who exhibit soft skills such as warmth, enthusiasm, effective communication, and con- sistently evaluated those with robust interpersonal skills as more effective. This evidence underscores the significant influence of soft skills on therapeutic alliances and high- lights their vital role in enhancing caregiver satisfaction.

* Alyssa Barrera-Lansford [email protected]

1 Department of Special Education, University of Texas at Austin, 1912 Speedway Sánchez Building Suite 3.708, Austin, TX 78712, USA

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However, despite the awareness that technical compe- tence alone is insufficient for providing ethical and effec- tive care, hard skills (i.e., skills related to one’s job or career) continue to form the core of many ABA graduate- level training programs (e.g., coursework and fieldwork), which are typically centered on the mastery of behavior- analytic procedures (e.g., assessment, data collection, and intervention procedures; Cowan & Kodak, 2023; Hendar- man & Cantner, 2019). Although such an emphasis is rea- sonable and justified given the credentialing and training requirements, this emphasis on technical content can often limit trainees' opportunities to develop compassionate, cul- turally responsive soft skills that directly influence service quality. As a result, increasing attention has shifted toward frameworks that highlight the importance of soft skills in everyday clinical interactions. This is also pertinent given the inherent difficulty of operationally defining and conceptualizing some of these “fuzzier” skills in a fully behavior-analytic way.

Within this shift, frameworks such as compassionate care and culturally responsive practice have gained prominence, as they represent ways that practitioners apply soft skills in their interactions with families. Drawing on core soft skill competencies, compassionate care describes the practi- tioner’s use of specific relational behaviors, such as offering empathy statements and validating caregiver perspectives, to build meaningful therapeutic alliances (Mathieu-Sher et al., 2024; Rohrer & Weiss, 2022). Culturally responsive practice extends this application of soft skills by guiding practitioners to understand, respect, and adapt to a fam- ily’s cultural values, communication styles, and lived experiences (i.e., their learning and reinforcement histo- ries) through collaboration, cultural awareness, and active listening (Jimenez-Gomez & Beaulieu, 2022; Kristiansen, 2023; Miller et  al., 2019). Together, these frameworks illustrate that practitioners must use soft skills flexibly by adapting them to each cultural context. For example, Her- nandez et al. (2025) found that for many families within the Latino/e community, compassion involves expressing emotions openly, whether through conversation, physical expression, or mutual acknowledgment, and validating both positive and negative experiences.

In other words, one could say the effective use of soft skills depends on cultural responsiveness, which enables practitioners to interpret and adapt soft skills so that families can recognize and receive them as intended. Cultural differ- ences also indicate that soft skills cannot be fully defined or operationalized without considering how families and communities understand and define these behaviors. This further emphasizes that behaviors typically labeled as com- passionate could lose their intended effect or meaning when the cultural context in question is overlooked (e.g., Beatson, 2008; Rohrer et al., 2021).

Therefore, the importance of soft skills is evident as they provide the foundation that empowers ABA practitioners to deliver both compassionate care and culturally respon- sive practices. These skills facilitate practitioners in dem- onstrating empathy, navigating cross-cultural interactions, and incorporating clients' and their families' perspectives into the care processes (Beaulieu & Jimenez-Gomez, 2022; Rohrer et al., 2021). For instance, Cowan and Kodak (2023) highlighted a variety of essential soft skills, including the ability to effectively prioritize tasks, both give and receive feedback, and exhibit genuine empathy and compassion towards others, alongside independent problem-solving capabilities. Likewise, Taylor et al. (2018) developed a car- egiver survey focused on assessing the relational behaviors of ABA practitioners, emphasizing domains such as listen- ing, collaboration, and compassion. Furthermore, Gatzunis et al. (2022) identified key competencies within culturally responsive practices, such as recognizing preferred language and asking clarifying questions, which are fundamentally reliant on soft skills like active listening and effective com- munication. Thus, integrating these soft skills is essential not only for enhancing therapeutic alliances, but also for fostering broader competence within professional practice.

However, despite increasing recognition of their impor- tance, soft skills remain inconsistently taught and evaluated within ABA training programs and supervisory practices. Andzik and Kranak (2021) noted that although the Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB) Supervision Curricu- lum 2.0 explicitly requires the instruction and assessment of soft skills such as interpersonal skills, time management, communication, and professionalism, many supervisors report feeling unprepared to teach these competencies or believing such training is not part of their role. This discon- nect has created a notable gap between what the field expects of practitioners and the training structures currently in place to support their development. The authors argue that the absence of systematic training procedures for soft skills con- tributes to significant variability in practitioner preparation and readiness for direct work with clients and their families. It is critical to remember that these gaps have direct ethical implications, because practitioners must demonstrate these skills to meet their professional obligations.

Given the centrality of soft skills in effective practice, it is also essential to consider how these skills correspond with the Ethics Code for Behavior Analysts (BACB, 2020). For example, codes such as (2.08) “Communicating About Services,” (2.09) “Involving Clients and Stakeholders,” and (2.10) “Collaborating with Colleagues” all require inter- personal skills to fulfill ethically. Although intrapersonal skills, such as self-awareness and reflection, are integral to codes (1.07) “Cultural Responsiveness and Diversity” and (1.10) “Awareness of Personal Biases and Challenges,” these skills underscore their necessity that extend beyond

Behavior Analysis in Practice

technical proficiency. When viewed alongside research such as Andzik and Kranak (2021), it becomes evident that practi- tioners engaging in clinically sound and ethical practice can be enhanced and complemented with explicit, systematic soft skill development—this is especially true when working with culturally and linguistically diverse families.

The need for well-developed soft skills is further empha- sized by the evolving demographics and rapid growth of the ABA field, along with the increasing prevalence rates of autism among diverse communities (BACB, n.d.; Shaw et al., 2025). Those evolving demographics underscore the need for ABA practitioners to have a soft skills repertoire that would aid them in providing compassionate, culturally responsive practices to diverse populations.

Thus, researchers are now examining how soft skills develop through targeted interventions and frameworks, including those grounded in cultural responsiveness (Gat- zunis et al., 2022) and compassionate care (Rohrer & Weiss, 2022). Although momentum around soft skill development in ABA continues to grow, questions remain about which skills researchers target, the types of interventions they use, how they incorporate culture, and how effectively these interventions change practitioner behavior. To address these areas of inquiry, this systematic review is guided by the fol- lowing questions:

(1) What soft skills do researchers target when training ABA practitioners?

(2) How do ABA practitioners perceive the effectiveness and impact of their soft skills training experiences?

(3) What are the measured effects of soft skill training interventions on ABA practitioners?

Method

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

The authors conducted this review in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines (Page et al., 2021). A search for studies that addressed soft skill interventions for ABA practitioners was conducted by using six educa- tional electronic databases: Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection (PBSC), Education Source, Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), SocINDEX, APA PsycInfo, and Professional Development Collection (PDC) in January 2025 and August 2025. The article search had no date limitations. Abstracts returned from the database and forward, backward, and hand-search articles were screened to determine if each article met the inclusion criteria. This process involved reading the abstract and then scanning the full text of an article when more information was required.

The study met three inclusion criteria to be included in this review. First, the study had to focus on quantitative research articles (e.g., single case design, experimental design) that examined soft skill intervention. Second, only studies in which ABA practitioners (e.g., RBTs, BCBAs) served as the primary participants were included. Third, the articles were published in a peer-reviewed journal and in English. Studies excluded were: (a) focused on only hard skills (b) if the article’s participants included other disciplines; (c) conceptual papers; and (d) other literature reviews. Figure 1 shows the search process, leaving this review with 11 studies to evaluate.

Search Procedure

The abstract and titles were searched using the follow- ing key search terms: soft skills and ABA Practitioners (see Table 1). Eighteen combinations of these terms were searched. Combinations included the full term (e.g., soft skills), and synonyms of the key terms (e.g., interper- sonal, personal values). Quotation marks were used to search for exact phrases, and an asterisk (*) was applied to root terms to capture relevant variations. Synonyms and related terms were combined using the Boolean oper- ator (i.e., OR) to broaden the search and ensure compre- hensive retrieval of relevant articles.

The initial search identified 951 articles. The authors eliminated duplicates (178) before reviewing titles/ abstracts. Of the 773 titles/abstracts, 760 did not meet the initial inclusion criteria (e.g., articles have to be

Table 1 Key Terms Used During Search Algorithm

The quotations were used to explicitly search for the term within the questions, and the asterisk was used to include a broader search for the term it’s attached to. The capital OR is a Boolean Operator used during searches to connect terms. OR was chosen to broaden the search. ABA = applied behavior analysis; BCBA = board-certified behavior analyst; RBT = registered behavior technician

Level Key Terms

Soft Skills soft skills or "soft skills" or "soft- skills" or "socio-emotional skills" or "interpersonal skills" or "intrapersonal skills" or "per- sonal values" or "communica- tion skills" or "leadership skills"

ABA Practitioners "behavior analysts" or "ABA practitioners" or "BCBA" or "RBT" or "behavior therapist" or "behavioral therapist" or "board certified behavior analyst" or "registered behavior technician" or "applied behavior analysis"

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Data Extraction

The authors of this review analyzed 11 studies and extracted information across the following components: (1) interven- tion; (2) study design; (3) participant population; (4) tar- geted soft skills; (5) cultural components; and (6) social validity measures (see Table 2).

Due to existing scholarship underscoring the need for behavior analysts to integrate culture into everyday prac- tice (Beaulieu et al., 2018; Conners et al., 2019; Fong et al., 2016; Fong & Tanaka, 2013; Rohrer et al., 2021), authors examined whether the included studies discussed incorporat- ing cultural components when targeting soft skills. A cul- tural component was defined as any explicit discussion of culture in relation to the development of soft skills within the included articles, regardless of the length, or location of that discussion within a manuscript. For example, Buk- szpan et al. (2023) described adapting soft-skill targets to align with families’ cultural values within their manuscript’s conclusion, which met the criteria for coding. It is important to note that our coding was based solely on explicit descrip- tions found in the published literature.

In addition, the authors extracted whether each study included indicators of social validity, defined as the extent to which intervention goals, procedures, and outcomes were acceptable, meaningful, and valued by relevant consumers (Schwartz & Baer, 1991; Wolf, 1978). Consistent with this definition, studies were coded as addressing social validity if the authors included explicit reporting of any participant input or evaluative feedback related to the goals, procedures, or outcomes of the soft-skill intervention, regardless of when that information was collected (e.g., prior to, during, or fol- lowing intervention). Some examples include participant involvement in selecting target soft skills, consideration of linguistic or contextual factors during intervention planning, or participant feedback regarding the acceptability or useful- ness of the intervention and its outcomes.

Next, the authors extracted the measured effects of the intervention and generalization/maintenance phases for both the SCD and group design studies (see Table 3). This included percentage of nonoverlapping data (PND) and per- centage exceeding the median (PEM) for SCD studies, and statistical significance along with Cohen's d for group design studies. After coding and extracting key study characteris- tics, the next step involved evaluating the methodological rigor and outcomes of the included studies. To do this, the authors of this review adopted established quality indica- tors used in previous reviews such as Sivaraman and Fahmie (2020), Neely et al. (2018), and Erhard et al. (2024), who also assessed the quality of their identified articles using quality indicators from Reichow (2011). For the SCD arti- cles, the authors referred to the SCD (also known as the single-subject or single-case experimental design) section of

geared towards ABA practitioners’ soft skill enhance- ment through intervention[s]). Thirteen articles fully met the inclusion criteria. An additional 12 articles that met our inclusion criteria were identified through for- ward, backward, and hand searches. The forward search involved searching included articles and reviewing any other research that had previously cited the article. A backward search process used the same original relevant articles and focused on finding any pertinent articles that could be useful through the reference section(s). We identified four articles during the forward search, one during the backward search, and seven during the hand search.

Last, in alignment with other research in behavior anal- ysis (Cengher & LeBlanc, 2024; Dixon et al., 2015), We elected to focus our hand search in the Association for Behavior Analysis International- (ABAI) and the Society for the Experimental Analysis of Behavior- (SEAB) based jour- nals to capture literature representative of behavior-analytic research and practice. This approach was commensurate with similar behavior-analytic literature (e.g., Cengher & LeBlanc, 2024; Dixon et al., 2015) and provided a reason- able representation of included journals. However, we note other journals do exist and could publish relevant work (see Briggs & Mitteer, 2021). Be that as it may, we reviewed the following major ABA journals: Journal of Applied Behav- ior Analysis (JABA), Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior (JEAB), Education and Treatment of Children (ETC), The Psychological Record (TPR), The Analysis of Verbal Behavior (AVB), Behavior and Social Issues (BSI), Perspectives on Behavior Science (PoBS), and Behavior Analysis in Practice (BAP), through all available volumes. From this search, the authors reviewed 25 articles and elimi- nated articles (14) that did not meet the inclusion criteria (e.g., conceptual articles, systematic reviews). This review was preregistered (Barrera-Lansford et al., 2024) through the open-source platform (OSF). Figure 1 summarizes the full search process.

Reliability

The first and third authors used the database Rayyan dur- ing the screening process, and used the double-blinded feature (i.e., researchers could not see each other’s screening process) that calculates IRR. The researcher's IRR reached 100% for initial and full-text screening. For forward, backward, and hand screening, authors organ- ized articles identified using Excel and calculated IRR by percent agreement (i.e., number of agreements / total number of observations x 100) which reached 90%. The authors discussed all disagreements, and 100% IRR was achieved.

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Reichow (2011) and the group design section for the three quantitative studies (see Table 4).

Data Analysis

For the eight SCD studies, the first and third author calcu- lated the effect size using PND and PEM when analyzing measured effects for both intervention and generalization/ maintenance similar to Preston and Carter (2009). The PND metric was used due to PND providing a meaningful metric of treatment effectiveness that is easy to interpret and is a nonparametric statistic not affected by problems of hetero- geneous variances or nonlinearity (Schlosser & Lee, 2000). PND is also the most field-tested method within single-sub- ject research (Bellini & Akullian, 2007; Erion, 2006; Lee et al., 2007; Kane et al., 2010; Jamshidi et al., 2023; Xin et al., 2005). However, a key limitation of PND is that if any

baseline data point overlaps with the intervention data set, the calculated PND is 0%, even if visual inspection suggests a treatment effect (Ma, 2006; Preston & Carter, 2009). Ma (2006) has proposed an alternative, PEM—the percentage of treatment data points above the median baseline data point, which is found by dividing all intervention data points below the BL median by the frequency of sessions and comparing the score to the criteria. There is evidence that PEM may better match author judgments of program effectiveness than PND. However, PND remains the most widely used metric for summarizing single-subject studies, with comparative data available for various interventions. Following Pres- ton and Carter (2009) as a guide, the authors of this article also decided to use multiple synthesis approaches to help strengthen our findings.

PND and PEM were calculated for all SCD studies (8) and compared to the Scruggs and Mastropieri’s (1998)

Figure 1. PRISMA Flow Diagram.

Studies identified from*:

PBSC (n=20)

APA PsycInfo (n=265)

Education Source (n=406)

ERIC (n=241)

SocINDEX = (n=12)

PDC= (n=7)

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(n =178)

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abstract

(n =773)

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(n =760)

Studies identified by backward,

forward, and hand search

Forward (n =4)

Backward (n=1)

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Full texts assessment for

eligibility

(n =13)

Studies excluded:

Not soft skill focused (n=2)

Not ABA practitioner (n=3)

Not in an ABA Grad program

(N=2)

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Studies included in review

(n =11)

Identification of studies via databases and registers

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Note: PBSC: Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection; ERIC: Education Resource Academic Center; SocINDEX: SocINDEX with Full Text; PDC; Professional Development Collection; Page et al., 2021

Behavior Analysis in Practice

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Behavior Analysis in Practice

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Behavior Analysis in Practice

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Behavior Analysis in Practice

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Behavior Analysis in Practice

criteria. Based on Scruggs and colleagues’ established crite- ria for evaluating quantitative data using PND: very effective treatments (over 90% PND), effective treatments (between 70% and 90% PND), questionable effectiveness (between 50% and 70% PND), and ineffective treatments (below 50% PND). However, for this article the authors of this review

adapted the categorization of the overall results of the arti- cles similar to Neely et al. (2018), Fuhrmann‐Knowles et al. (2024) and Erhard et al. (2024) by using three terms: posi- tive, mixed, or negative.

Positive results were classified when the overall mean score remained above the baseline at over 90% for PND

Table 3 Summary of Study Effectiveness PND (M%)

PEM (M%)

SCD studies Intervention Gen/Maint Overall Intervention Gen/Maint Overall Study quality

Bukszpan et al. (2023)

96.3% 100/100% 98.2% 100% 100%/100% 100% Positive

Canon & Gould (2022)

100% 75%/81.2% 85.4% 100% 100%/100% 100% Positive

Gatzunis et al. (2023)

89.2% NA NA 97.1% NA NA Mixed

Hess et al. (2022)

100% NR/ 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Positive

Law et al. (2024)

86.2% 94.5%/NR 90.3% 94.5% 94.5% 94.5% Positive

Mathieu-Sher et al. (2024)

100% 100%/NR 100% 100% 100% 100% Positive

Rohrer & Weiss (2022)

100% 100%/100% 100% 100% 100%/100% 100% Positive

Verojporn & Luna (2024)

100% 100%/NR 100% 100% 100% 100% Positive

Mean 96.4% 95.6%/96.5 96.2% 98.5% 99%/99% 99%

SD 0.05 0.09/0.07 0.06 0.02 0.025/0.025 0.021

Group design Measured Effects Quality

Friedman et al. (2024)

RQ1: (p < .001), RQ2: post-test (p = .004)

FULL ICCAS PRE-POST d = .42, FULL SCS-SF PRE-POST d = .22

Mixed

Nohelty et al. (2024)

p = .020 d = 1.31

Positive

Tereshko et al. (2024)

Group 1: NS Group 2: 10 of the 13 questions demonstrated a statistically signi�cant increase during posttest.

Group 3: All 13-question demonstrated a statistically signi�cant increase during posttest.

Mixed

Note. PND = Percentage of nonoverlapping data; PEM = Percentage exceeding the median; SD = Standard deviation; M = Mean; N/A = Not applicable; NR = No response; NS = not significant

Behavior Analysis in Practice

and/or PEM during both the intervention and maintenance/ generalization phases for each study. Negative results were identified when both the intervention and the generalization/ maintenance data for PND or PEM dropped below 50%, indicating ineffectiveness. Mixed results were categorized when the PND or PEM scores reflected an overall mean between 50% and 90%, signifying a combination of ques- tionable and effective treatment outcomes.

For the three-group design studies, a similar categori- zation was employed. Positive results indicated the results showed either a statistical significance (p < 0.05) or a large

Cohen's d (d ≥ 0.8; Cohen, 1988; Lakens, 2013; Shreffler & Huecker, 2023), or both. Mixed results occurred when the data showed either a statistical significance (p < 0.05) and a moderate (d = 0.5) effect size or a statistical significance and or effect size was seen for one group or research question, but not all groups or research questions. A negative result was defined as both a low effect size (d = 0.2) and lack of statistical significance. The decision to use both p-value and Cohen's d was driven by the limited statistical information provided in some of the group design studies, which pre- vented the extraction of Cohen's d from the available data.

Table 4 Quality Appraisal of Studies Found

Primary Indicators Secondary Indicators

Group Design

Participant Characteristics

IV CC DV LRQ STAT RA IOA BR FID ATR ES Gen/Main. SV Quality

of Articles

Friedman et al. (2024)

A A N/A A H H − − − − + + − − Adequate

Nohelty et al. (2024)

A A A A H A + + + + + + − + Strong

Tereshko et al. (2024)

A A A A H H − − + + + − − − Adequate

Primary Indicators Secondary Indicators

Single Case Design

Participant Characteristics

IV Baseline/Co

mp DV

Visual/Stat. Analysis

Experimental Control

/Link to RQ IOA Kappa BR TF Gen/Main. SV

Quality of

Articles

Bukszpan et al. (2023)

A H A H U A + − − + + − Adequate

Canon & Gould (2022)

A H U H U U + − − + + + Weak

Gatzunis et al. (2023)

A H A A U A + − − + + + Adequate

Hess et al. (2022)

A A H A H H + − − + + + Strong

Law et al. (2024)

A H U H U A + − − − + + Weak

Mathieu- Sher et al. (2024)

A H H H A U − − − − + + Adequate

Rohrer & Weiss (2022)

A H H H H H + − − + + + Strong

Verojporn & Luna (2024)

H H H H H H + − − + + − Strong

Note. H= Highly Acceptable; A = Acceptable; U = Unacceptable; N/A = Not applicable; (+) = Positive; (−) = Negative; CC = Comparison Condition; IV = Independent variable; DV = Dependent variable; BR = Blind raters; SV = Social validity; LRQ = Link between research ques- tion and data analysis; STAT = Statistical analysis; RA = Random Assignment; IOA = Interobserver Agreement; FID = Fidelity; ATR = Attri- tion; GEN/MAIN = Generalization or Maintenance; RQ = Research Question; TF = Trainer fidelity; EC = Experimental control; ES = Effect size

Behavior Analysis in Practice

Quality Assessment

To assess the methodological quality of each study, the authors of this review used Reichow (2011) standards (see Table 4). The quality assessment rubrics included two lev- els of methodological elements: primary quality indicators and secondary quality indicators. Primary quality indicators focused on critical aspects of the research methodology for demonstrating study validity. Authors used Reichow (2011) operational definitions and trichotomous ordinal scale to evaluate each study. For instance, participant characteristics were defined as describing the age, gender, diagnosis, and standardized test scores of all participants, as well as infor- mation about the interventionists. Secondary quality indi- cators included important but not essential research design elements for establishing study validity.

Each study was scored using a dichotomous scale, such as considering if a study is socially valid if it met at least four of seven criteria, (e.g., including a socially signifi- cant goal, cost-effective intervention, satisfied consumers, and natural treatment context). The authors assessed the studies in the review using both six primary and second- ary indicators, as detailed by Reichow (2011). Based on the scores, each study was assigned a quality rating of "strong," "adequate," or "weak." A "strong" study received high-quality grades on all primary indicators and showed evidence of three or more secondary indicators. An "adequate" study received high-quality grades on at least four primary indicators with no unacceptable grades and showed evidence of at least two secondary indicators. A "weak" study received fewer than four high-quality grades on primary indicators or showed evidence of less than two secondary indicators.

Likewise, for the three group design studies, authors also used the Reichow (2011) criteria for assessing group design studies based on six primary quality indicators (e.g., com- parison condition, link between research question and data analysis, and statistical analysis) and eight secondary quality indicators (e.g., random assignment, effect size, attrition). The authors scored the specific quality indicators for each study. Then, assigned an overall quality rating based on the cumulative score similar to the single-case design studies (e.g., strong, adequate, and weak). The first author assessed each study, and the third author evaluated the quality of all studies, with 100% agreement.

Interrater Agreement

The first and third authors coded separately for both the quality assessment (Table 2) and the descriptive synthesis (Tables 3 and 4) using Excel and calculated IRR by percent agreement (i.e., number of agreements / total number of

observations x 100). The first author extracted all the data for the descriptive synthesis. Following the conclusion of the descriptive data extraction, the third author independently extracted the descriptive data for 5 out of the 11 included articles (45%). Articles for IRR were randomly selected from the sample. For the components extracted (e.g., par- ticipants, design, measured effects, generalization/mainte- nance, soft skills), agreements totaled to 62 coding cells for a resulting 100% IRR.

This same process was utilized for the quality assessment, in which the third author coded 5 randomly selected articles. There were 12 (SCD) and 14 (Group design) components from Reichow (2011) extracted. Agreements totaled to 36 coding cells for the SCD studies for a resulting 100% IRR, and 28 for the group design studies for a resulting 100% IRR.

Results

Table 2 presents the articles design, population, interven- tion, whether participants were asked about soft skills and the specific soft skills targeted, cultural components, social significance (if any) and the practitioners' opinions regarding interventions (e.g., BST) used to teach soft skills. Table 3 presents the measured effects of the studies found via PEM, PND, and Cohen’s d/ statistical significance (i.e., p-value when needed). Last, Table 4 provides a summary of the quality indicator scores assigned to each study per Reichow (2011) criteria.

Participants and Experimental Design

The 11 studies provided soft skill training to a total of 156 participants. Of the studies that provided the demographic information, there were 120 female participants, 20 male participants, and 1 nonbinary participant (see Table 2). Age data were inconsistently reported, so mean age could not be calculated. However, the reported age range across the studies spanned from 20 to 54 years. Information on race and ethnicity was provided in only 4 of the 11 studies (Gatzunis et al., 2023; Law et al., 2024; Nohelty et al., 2024; Tereshko et al., 2024). Among those studies, 66 participants identified as white, 10 participants identified as Asian, 11 participants identified as African American or Black, 8 participants identified as Latino or Hispanic, and 5 participants identified as multiracial.

Of the eight SCD articles used, six of the studies used a multiple baseline design (Bukszpan et al., 2023; Canon & Gould, 2022; Gatzunis et al., 2023; Hess et al., 2022; Law et al., 2024; Rohrer & Weiss, 2022), one used a brief exper- imental analysis (Mathieu-Sher et al., 2024), and another study used a preexperimental, AB design (Verojporn &

Behavior Analysis in Practice

Luna, 2024). Of the three-group designs, two used a quasi- experimental approach (Friedman et al., 2024; Tereshko et al., 2024), and the other study used a randomized control trial design (RCT; Nohelty et al., 2024).

Independent Variables

Seven out of the 11 studies used behavior skills training (BST) with two using BST mixed with another modality (acceptance and commitment training (ACT) and teaching interaction procedure; Bukszpan et al., 2023; Hess et al., 2022). Of the seven studies using BST, three were telehealth (or online; Gatzunis et al., 2023; Law et al., 2024; Rohrer & Weiss, 2022). Four out of the 11 studies utilized a train- ing package approach (Friedman et al., 2024; Nohelty et al., 2024; Tereshko et al., 2024; Verojporn & Luna, 2024). For example, Friedman et al. (2024) utilized a 4-month train- ing-and-coaching intervention centered around collabora- tion, mindful self-compassion, and compassion. Last, one study (Cannon & Gould, 2024) utilized clicker training when teaching soft skills to ABA professionals (see Table 2).

Dependent Variable

Though the soft skills targeted varied across studies, the majority of the articles focused on teaching compassion- ate care skills (see Table 2). In particular, 7 out of the 11 articles focused on increasing compassion or compassionate care skills, with 4 of the 7 using step-based frameworks to train practitioners (Mathieu-Sher et al., 2024; Nohelty et al., 2024; Rohrer & Weiss, 2022; Verojporn & Luna, 2024). For example, Rohrer and Weiss (2022) defined compas- sionate care as a set of 11 discrete interpersonal behaviors, including telling the caregiver you are taking notes, nodding, backchannel responses (e.g., “uh huh,” “yeah”), providing a positive introduction, acknowledging the child’s abilities, asking about the child’s interests, asking about parent priori- ties, incorporating parent priorities, making empathy state- ments, normalizing caregiver experiences, and partnering with caregivers. Nohelty et al. (2024) likewise included 20 component behaviors distributed across interviewing, rap- port-building, and responsive communication.

Other studies targeted soft skills such as mindful reflec- tion, curiosity, appreciation (Canon & Gould, 2022), col- laboration (Friedman et  al., 2024), empathy (Gatzunis et al., 2023), interviewing (Gatzunis et al., 2023), cultural responsiveness (Gatzunis et al., 2023), feedback and self- motivation (Hess et al., 2022), active and empathic listening (Law et al., 2024), and self-assessment and self-reflection

(Tereshko et al., 2024). When comparing the soft skills included within compassionate care frameworks to those targeted in studies that did not use the term “compassionate care,” several overlapping skills emerged, suggesting that many soft skill studies may be training elements of compas- sionate care even when not explicitly labeled as such.

Cultural Components

To evaluate the extent to which cultural considerations (e.g., cultural humility, responsiveness) were embedded in soft skill training, only 4 out of the 11 articles mentioned culture in this regard. For example, Bukszpan et al. (2023) discussed how training clinicians in soft skills leads to potential appli- cations and guidance in cultural humility and compassionate care. Although Gatzunis et al. (2023) did not fully articu- late the role of soft skills in improving culturally respon- sive practices, the study nonetheless included BST aimed at increasing soft skills related to cultural humility and compassionate care. In another study, Mathieu-Sher et al. (2024) talked about how soft skills and cultural competence are needed when providing compassionate care, and last, Tereshko et al. (2024) utilized an intervention to increase culturally responsive practices, stating that future research should focus on intervening on the targeted soft skills of culturally responsive behavior using BST.

However, although these articles included a cultural component, they did not explicitly discuss how soft skills function within culturally responsive, sensitive, aware, or humble practice, nor did they provide enough information to determine whether participants’ cultural backgrounds were considered or meaningfully incorporated into soft skill development.

ABA Practitioner Perspectives

Social validity was measured exclusively postintervention in 7 of the 11 studies. Of those seven studies, only six reported the corresponding social validity data within the published article (Gatzunis et al., 2023; Law et al., 2024; Mathieu- Sher et al., 2024; Rohrer & Weiss, 2022; Nohelty et al., 2024; Tereshko et al., 2024). As a result, nearly half of the reviewed studies either did not assess social validity or did not report these findings, making it difficult to evaluate the extent to which the interventions were socially significant to participants (see Table 2). It’s also important to note that none of the reviewed articles discussed individualizing their interventions by incorporating participant input or adminis- tering a preintervention social validity assessment.

Behavior Analysis in Practice

Measured Effects

Intervention and Generalization/Maintenance Results

Of the eight SCD studies found, seven were positive (Buk- szpan et al., 2023; Canon & Gould, 2022; Hess et al., 2022; Law et  al., 2024; Mathieu-Sher et  al., 2024; Rohrer & Weiss, 2022; Verojporn & Luna, 2024) with a PND range of 80%–100% for the intervention phase, and 100% for the generalization/maintenance phase and a PEM score of 90%–100%. One of the eight SCD studies was mixed (Gat- zunis et al., 2023), with the intervention phase having a PND of 89.2% and a PEM of 97%. However, because generali- zation or maintenance data were not available for all par- ticipants, further scoring could not be calculated accurately (total of four nonresponses/missing data; see Table 3).

Of the three group studies, Nohelty et al. (2024), demon- strated a large effect size (d = 1.31) and a statistical signifi- cance (p = .02). The other two articles showed mixed results, with one article (Friedman et al., 2024) showing a statistical significance but with low effect sizes and the other article (Tereshko et al., 2024) showing a statistical significance for two out of the three groups, with an inconclusive effect size (i.e., no data to compute Cohen’s d; see Table 3).

Quality Assessment Results

The quality of the eight single case design studies was assessed using indicators described by Reichow (2011), which are summarized in Table 4. Three studies (Hess et al., 2022; Rohrer & Weiss, 2022; Verojporn & Luna, 2024) dem- onstrated strong quality, three studies (Bukszpan et al., 2023; Gatzunis et al., 2023; Mathieu-Sher et al., 2024) demon- strated adequate quality, and two studies (Canon & Gould, 2022; Law et al., 2024) demonstrated weak quality. For the SCD studies, 12.5% (Hess et al., 2022) demonstrated ade- quate quality independent variables, whereas the remaining 87.5% showcased high-quality independent variables. Like- wise, for dependent variables, 25% (Gatzunis et al., 2023; Hess et al., 2022) of the studies showed adequate quality, whereas 75% demonstrated high-quality dependent variables (see Table 4). The majority of articles demonstrated quality for IOA (87.5%), treatment fidelity (75%), and social validity (75%). Some methodological weaknesses identified across this group of studies included lack of specific visual/statisti- cal analysis (50%), absence of kappa scores (0%), and lack of blind raters (0%).

Of the three group design articles, one demonstrated strong quality (Nohelty et  al., 2024), whereas the oth- ers demonstrated adequate quality (Friedman et al., 2024; Tereshko et al., 2024). Table 4 shows the results of the qual- ity assessment. All three articles scored adequate for par- ticipant characteristics, and the independent and dependent

variable indicators, with high quality shown for all three articles within the “link between research question” and “data analysis” under the primary indicator section. For the comparison condition (CC) two articles scored as adequate, with the Friedman et al. (2024) study, being given a “N/A” because the CC isn’t needed for a feasibility study (White- head et al., 2014). For the group design secondary indica- tors, all three articles scored a negative for generalization / maintenance, with all studies also scoring positive for attri- tion (ATR).

Discussion

The findings of this review offer important insight into how soft skill interventions are conceptualized, trained, and eval- uated within ABA research. Across the 11 included stud- ies, researchers targeted a wide range of interpersonal and intrapersonal soft skills, with compassionate care emerging as the most frequently addressed target. Although this trend reflects the growing emphasis on soft skill development in ABA, substantial variability emerged in how these skills were defined and operationalized, resulting in inconsisten- cies in the precision, scope, and depth of training targets across studies. Several authors offered detailed behavioral definitions of soft skills, whereas others provided general conceptual descriptions with limited specification of observ- able topographies. This variability highlights the need for more standardized, behaviorally anchored definitions of soft skills to support replicability and meaningful interpretation of training outcomes.

One of the most notable patterns that emerged from this review was the divergence in how “compassionate care” was conceptualized across studies. Some research teams treated compassionate care as a broad, global construct, whereas others operationalized it through highly detailed behavioral repertoires. For example, Rohrer and Weiss (2022) trained an 11-component skill set that included relational behav- iors such as telling caregivers you are taking notes, nod- ding, backchannel responses, acknowledging child strengths, asking about family priorities, making empathy statements, normalizing caregiver experiences, and partnering with families. Nohelty et al. (2024) expanded this approach to include 20 component skills spanning interviewing, rapport building, and responsive communication. When these mul- ticomponent frameworks were compared to the skills trained in studies that did not explicitly label their targets as “com- passionate care,” substantial overlap emerged. Skills such as reflective listening, asking clarifying questions, perspec- tive taking, and incorporating family input appeared across multiple studies, even when researchers used labels like col- laboration, curiosity, cultural responsiveness, interviewing, or empathy. This comparison suggests that many soft skill

Behavior Analysis in Practice

interventions may be functionally training elements of com- passionate care even when they are not described as such.

This finding has significant implications for the field, particularly regarding consistency in training and fidelity assessment. Without explicit recognition of these overlaps, the literature may appear more fragmented than it actually is. Clarifying the shared behavioral components across soft skill interventions can help unify the field’s understanding of what is being taught, facilitate cross-study comparisons, and strengthen practitioner preparation by highlighting the essential relational repertoires that repeatedly emerge across studies. Clarifying shared behavioral components may facili- tate greater adoption of, and receptiveness to, repertoires described as soft skills or compassionate care.

The importance of clearly defining these skills becomes even more salient when considering their cultural meaning. Although compassionate care and related soft skills may appear universal in name, their behavioral expression var- ies considerably across cultural groups, influencing how these behaviors function in practice. For example, Hernan- dez et al. (2025) found that many Latino/e caregivers view compassion through emotionally expressive behaviors, such as openly discussing feelings or validating difficult experi- ences, rather than through the redirection of negative experi- ences. In this case, a well-meaning practitioner who attempts to be compassionate by validating only positive events with a Latino/e family may unintentionally hinder rapport building.

Likewise, Čolić et al. (2022) highlighted the importance of soft skills such as “respect” when ABA practitioners engage in treatment discussions with Black caregivers, not- ing that a child’s respectful behavior toward others may be viewed as a reflection of the caregivers and family as a whole. Inviting caregivers to describe what respect looks like to them (e.g., which behaviors they consider respect- ful) and embedding these definitions into behavior plans can help ensure that intervention goals are meaningful and support the therapeutic alliance between families and practi- tioners (Kristiansen, 2023; Rohrer et al., 2021; Taylor et al., 2018). In other words, though there may be a general under- standing of what constitutes “soft skills,” those repertoires will often need to be adapted to fit the cultural context in which an individual is behaving, akin to tailoring a behav- ioral treatment to match a specific behavioral function (e.g., functional communication training modified to address an escape function).

However, despite the field’s increasing emphasis on cul- tural considerations, only four studies explicitly described incorporating these considerations into soft skill training. (Bukszpan et al., 2023; Gatzunis et al., 2023; Mathieu- Sher et al., 2024; Tereshko et al., 2024). Even then, cul- tural issues were addressed briefly or without a clear link to the soft skills being taught. For example, Mathieu-Sher et al. (2024) acknowledged that compassionate-care skills

may vary across cultural contexts and cautioned against applying their operational definitions broadly; however, cultural considerations were discussed primarily as a limi- tation rather than being systematically embedded within the instruction or operationalization of the compassionate-care skills themselves. Overall, none of the studies operational- ized soft skills using culturally relevant definitions or evalu- ated participants’ cultural preferences to guide training. This omission seems particularly concerning given the expanding diversity of families supported through the field of ABA and the profession’s ethical expectations surrounding cultural responsiveness (BACB, 2020).

A similar pattern emerged with respect to social validity. Although six studies measured social validity postinterven- tion, no study incorporated preintervention social validity or participant-identified soft skill priorities, limiting the extent to which training reflected the values, needs, or expectations of participants. In applied work, failure to incorporate social validity can undermine therapeutic alliance, reduce treat- ment adherence, and result in interventions that are techni- cally correct but socially ineffective (Leifler et al., 2022; Wolf, 1978). This gap becomes especially important when viewed alongside research such as Martín Loya and Meadan (2024), who found that bilingual practitioners and caregivers viewed the use of heritage language as a relational behavior that communicates respect and cultural affirmation. Failing to consider, culture (e.g. linguistic preference) in soft skill training may inadvertently hinder therapeutic alliances, par- ticularly in multilingual service contexts. Only one study in this review (Rohrer & Weiss, 2022) incorporated caregiver- identified interpersonal preferences into its training model, highlighting the potential for soft skill interventions to be enhanced when participant perspectives are more explic- itly incorporated, consistent with long-standing emphasis on social validity in ABA (Wolf, 1978; Schwartz & Baer, 1991).

This absence of both a participant’s input and culture mirrors broader concerns identified in the ABA supervi- sion literature. Andzik and Kranak (2021) highlighted that supervisors frequently lack concrete strategies, operational definitions, and evidence-based methods for teaching soft skills, leaving trainees with limited opportunities to prac- tice or receive feedback on behaviors that are essential for effective, culturally attuned clinical work. They also noted that the field has yet to clearly conceptualize what consti- tutes competent soft skills across diverse cultural contexts. This gap in supervision practices helps explain why cultural responsiveness remains inconsistently embedded in soft skill training and further underscores the need for systematic, cul- turally relevant approaches that align with ethical expecta- tions for ABA practitioners.

Taken together, these conceptual and practical gaps pro- vide essential context for interpreting the measured effects

Behavior Analysis in Practice

of soft skill interventions identified in this review. Although the interventions often produced strong immediate behavior change, the broader inconsistencies in definition, cultural embedding, and training infrastructure shape how these out- comes should be understood. With these considerations in mind, the measured effects of the interventions were still generally promising. Seven of eight single-case design stud- ies demonstrated strong treatment effects, with high PND and PEM scores, and group design studies showed mixed but encouraging findings. BST was the most consistently effec- tive approach, aligning with broader literature demonstrat- ing BST’s strength in teaching complex repertoires involv- ing verbal and nonverbal interactions. However, because some studies did not assess generalization or maintenance, it remains unclear whether these improvements endure or transfer to real-world interactions.

The methodological strengths and limitations of the reviewed studies also warrant consideration. Several high- quality studies demonstrated strong outcomes (e.g., Hess et al., 2022; Rohrer & Weiss, 2022; Verojporn & Luna, 2024; Nohelty et al., 2024), but some studies with weaker methodology also yielded high effect sizes (e.g., Canon & Gould, 2022; Law et al., 2024), highlighting the need for cautious interpretation. The use of Reichow (2011) qual- ity indicators, although consistent with prior reviews, may overemphasize certain design elements at the expense of outcome relevance, which can contribute to discrepancies in quality ratings (Ferguson et al., 2019; Pacia et al., 2022; Tomlinson et al., 2018). For example, as discussed by Pacia et al. (2022), SCD studies primary quality indicators empha- size design strength, such as stable baselines, effective visual analysis, and clear experimental control, without weighing study outcomes. As a result, a single unstable baseline or a data path showing no change after introducing the inde- pendent variable can result in an “unacceptable” rating, even when other elements are strong. This likely contributed to several “weak” ratings among the SCD studies in this review. However, future reviews could strengthen methodo- logical evaluations by adopting alternative approaches like those from the What Works Clearinghouse (2010) and by applying additional statistical methods for effect size in SCD research (e.g., Tau-U; Hong et al., 2018).

In addition to these methodological limitations within the studies themselves, several limitations in our search pro- cedures also constrained the scope of the review. First, the number of studies included in this review were relatively small, and the overall number of participants across stud- ies were limited, reducing the generalizability of these find- ings. Next, our restrictive search procedures (e.g., ABAI and SEAB journals), exclusion of grey literature, and narrow ter- minology may have resulted in missing relevant studies. For instance, terminology related to soft skills, such as "people skills," was not used which may have led to the omission of

relevant articles. Further, research indicates that approxi- mately 21 journals publish contemporary behavior-analytic literature; thus, it is possible that some relevant articles were also overlooked during our hand search (Briggs & Mitteer, 2021). Finally, by excluding grey literature the authors of this review may have overlooked significant research on soft skills. According to Paez (2017), including grey litera- ture is crucial to minimizing publication bias and ensuring a more comprehensive evidence base. Therefore, future reviews should aim to address these limitations by broaden- ing their search terms and including a wider range of litera- ture, including grey literature, to provide a more thorough examination of the topic.

Taken together, the measured effects, methodological constraints, and potential gaps in cultural relevance, signal several important directions for future research. Soft skill training would benefit from reporting and incorporating pre-, mid-, and postintervention social validity assessments to ensure that targeted skills reflect practitioner and caregiver priorities, particularly across culturally diverse groups (Lei- fler et al., 2022). Future work should also develop culturally grounded operational definitions of soft skills, informed by interviews, community norms, and translational research. Because compassionate care appears to encompass many of the soft skills targeted across the reviewed studies, future research should identify the specific behavioral components that consistently define compassionate care and examine whether these components function likewise across cultures, populations, and clinical contexts. The use of qualitative and mixed-methods approaches may be especially well-suited for identifying soft skills that are meaningful within diverse cultural contexts (Cowan & Kodak, 2023; Tereshko et al., 2024). These approaches enable researchers to solicit direct input from families and practitioners and clarify culturally preferred soft skills to support therapeutic alliances between practitioners and families. By centering participant per- spectives, qualitative methods can strengthen both cultural responsiveness and social validity, two areas that were nota- bly underrepresented across our reviewed studies (Burney et al., 2023; Vollmer & Pendergrass, 2025).

In addition, both practice and research should further explore the differences between practitioners who dem- onstrate high levels of soft skills and those who do not. Expanding on the work of Callahan et al. (2019), future studies should examine how practitioner soft skills influ- ence caregiver satisfaction, therapeutic alliance, and, most critically, client outcomes. Given that caregivers already place value on technical proficiency, the additional benefit of interpersonal and intrapersonal competence reinforces the importance of embedding soft skill training in professional development.

In conclusion, soft skills are essential for fostering compassionate care, cultural responsiveness, and effective

Behavior Analysis in Practice

therapeutic alliances in ABA. This review reinforces the growing recognition of soft skills as a fundamental com- ponent of high-quality, person-centered practice. Although current research shows promising results, particularly with interventions grounded in BST and compassionate care models, gaps still remain in methodological rigor, and attention to social and cultural context. To advance the field, future studies must prioritize culturally responsive, socially valid, and participant-centered approaches to soft skill training. Researchers and practitioners must collabo- rate to ensure that interventions reflect the lived experiences and diverse values of both their participants and the com- munities they serve. This review demonstrates that a more inclusive and systematic approach to developing and evalu- ating soft skills has the potential to enhance professional competence (Cowan & Kodak, 2023; LeBlanc et al., 2020), improve service delivery (Rohrer et al., 2021; Taylor et al., 2018), and promote ethical practices (Andzik & Kranak, 2021). Continued exploration in this area is not only war- ranted but also essential for fostering compassionate, cultur- ally responsive practitioners. The authors hope this review provides the necessary information to advance soft skills research and guide the development of these essential skills, ultimately improving the quality of ABA service delivery through stronger therapeutic alliances.

Author Note We thank Dr. Marlesha Bell and Dr. Jennifer Nailos for introducing the first author to this area of work. We also thank the edi- tor and reviewers for their supportive comments and guidance.

Author Contributions The first author contributed to the study design, conceptualization, writing, data collection and analysis, coding, and synthesis of this article. The second author provided guidance, contrib- uted to the synthesis, and assisted with writing and editing and the third author contributed to screening, coding, and editing the overall review. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the article.

Data Availability The data that support the findings of this study are openly available at: https:// doi. org/ 10. 17605/ OSF. IO/ M9GQD

Declarations

Ethical Approval No human subjects or animals were involved in this study; therefore, IRB approval was not required.

Competing interests All authors declare no conflict of interests.

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attri- bution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adapta- tion, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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