Communication & Collaboration

The language of leadership is misunderstood, underutilized and more essential than ever.

T ECESSARY ART OF

O BY ]AY A. CONGER

G

THERE EVER WAS A TIME for businesspeople to learn the fine art

of persuasion^ it is now. Gone are the command-and-control days of

executives managing hy decree. Today husinesses are run largely hy

eross-functional teams of peers and populated hy hahy hoomers and

their Generation X offspring, who show little tolerance for unques-

tioned authority. Electronic cominunication and glohalization have

further eroded the traditional hierarchy, as ideas and people flow more

freely than ever around organizations and as decisions get made closer

to the markets. These fundamental changes, more than a decade in

the making hut now firmly part of the economic landscape, essentially

come down to this: work today gets done in an environment where

THE NECESSARY ART OF PERSUASION

TWELVE YEARS OF WATCHING AND LISTENING The ideas behind this article spring from three streams of research.

For the last 12 years as both an academic and as a consultant, I have been studying 23 senior business leaders who have shown themselves to be effective change agents. Specifically, I have investigated how these individuals use language to motivate their em- ployees, articulate vision and strategy, and mobilize their organizations to adapt to challenging business environments.

Four years ago, I started a second stream of research exploring the capabilities and characteristics of suc- cessful cross-functional team leaders. The core of my database comprised interviews with and observations of 18 individuals working in a range of U.S. and Cana- dian companies. These were not senior leaders as in my earlier studies but low- and middle-level man- agers. Along with interviewing the colleagues of these people, I also compared their skills with those of other

team leaders-in particular, with the leaders of less successful cross-functional teams engaged in similar initiatives within the same companies. Again, my fo- cus was on language, but I also studied the influence of interpersonal skills.

The similarities in the persuasion skills possessed by both the change-agent leaders and effective team leaders prompted me to explore the academic litera- ture on persuasion and rhetoric, as well as on the art of gospel preaching. Meanwhile, to learn how most man- agers approach the persuasion process, I observed sev- eral dozen managers in company meetings, and I em- ployed simulations in company executive-education programs where groups of managers had to persuade one another on hypothetical business objectives. Finally, I selected a group of 14 managers known for their outstanding abilities in constructive persuasion. For several months, I interviewed them and their col- leagues and observed them in actual work situations.

people don't just ask What should I do? but Why should I do it?

To answer this why question effectively is to per- suade. Yet many businesspeople misunderstand persuasion, and more still underutilize it. The rea- son? Persuasion is widely perceived as a skill re- served for selling products and closing deals. It is also commonly seen as just another form of lnanip- ulation-devious and to be avoided. Certainly, per- suasion can be used in selling and deal-clinching situations, and it can be misused to manipulate people. But exercised constructively and to its full potential, persuasion supersedes sales and is quite the opposite of deception. Effeetive persuasion be- coines a negotiating and learning process through which a persuader leads colleagues to a problem's shared solution. Persuasion does indeed involve moving people to a position they don't currently hold, but not by begging or cajoling. Instead, it involves careful preparation, the proper framing of arguments, the presentation of vivid supporting evidence, and the effort to find the correct emotional match with your audience.

Jay A. Conger is a professor of organizational behavior al the University of Southern California's Marshall School of Business in Los Angeles, where he directs the Leader- ship Institute. He is the author of Winning 'Em Over: A New Model for Managing in the Age of Persuasion (Simon &) Schuster, 1998).

Effective persuasion is a difficult and time- consuming proposition, but it may aiso be more powerful than the command-and-control mana- gerial model it succeeds. As AlliedSignal's CEO Lawrence Bossidy said recently, "The day when you could yell and scream and beat people into good performance is over. Today you have to appeal to them by helping them see how they can get from here to there, by establishing some credibility, and by giving them some reason and help to get there. Do all those things, and they'll knock down doors." In essence, he is describing persuasion-now more than ever, the language of business leadership.

Think for a moment of your definition of persua- sion. If you are like most businesspeople I have encountered [see the insert "Twelve Years of Watch- ing and Listening"), you see persuasion as a rela- tively straightforward process. First, you strongly state your position. Second, you outline the sup- porting arguinents, followed by a highly assertive, data-based exposition. Finally, you enter the deal- making stage and work toward a "close." In other words, you use logic, persistence, and personal enthusiasm to get others to buy a good idea. The re- ality is that following this process is one surefire way to fail at persuasion. (See the insert "Four Ways Not to Persuade.")

What, then, constitutes effective persuasion? If persuasion is a learning and negotiating process, then in the most general terms it involves phases of

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discovery, preparation, and dialogue. Getting ready to persuade colleagues can take weeks or months of planning as you learn about your audience and the position you intend to argue. Before they even start to talk, effective persuaders have considered their positions from every angle. What investments in time and money will my position require from oth- ers? Is my supporting evidence weak in any way? Are there alternative positions I need to examine?

Dialogue happens before and during the persua- sion process. Before the process begins, effective persuaders use dialogue to learn more about their audience's opinions, concerns, and perspectives. During the process, dialogue continues to be a form of learning, but it is also the beginning of the nego- tiation stage. You invite people to discuss, even de- bate, the merits of your position, and then to offer honest feedback and suggest alternative solutions. That may sound like a slow way to achieve your goal, but effective persuasion is about testing and revising ideas in concert with your colleagues' con- cerns and needs. In fact, the best persuaders not only listen to others but also incorporate their per- spectives into a shared solution.

Persuasion, in other words, often involves- indeed, demands-compromise. Perhaps that is why the inost effective persuaders seein to share a common trait: they arc open-minded, never dog- matic. They enter the persuasion process prepared to adjust their viewpoints and incorporate others' ideas. That approach to persuasion is, interestingly, highly persuasive in itself. When colleagues see that a persuader is eager to hear their views and willing to make changes in response to their needs and concerns, they respond very positively. They trust the persuader more and listen more atten- tively. They don't fear being bowled over or manip- ulated. They see the persuader as ficxible and are thus more willing to make sacrifices themselves. Because that is such a powerful dynamic, good per- suaders often enter the persuasion process with judicious compromises already prepared.

Four Essential Steps Effective persuasion involves four distinct and es- sential steps. First, effective persuaders establish credibility. Second, they frame their goals in a way

FOUR WAYS NOT TO PERSUADE In my work with managers as a researcher and as a consultant, I have had the unfortunate opportunity to see executives fail miserably at persuasion. Here are the four most common mistakes people make:

1. They attempt to make their case with an up-fiont, hard sell. I call this the |ohn Wayne approach. Man- agers strongly state their position at the outset, and then through a process of persistence, logic, and exu- berance, they try to push the idea to a close. In reality, setting out a strong position at the start of a persua- sion effort gives potential opponents something to grab onto-and fight against. It's far better to present your position with the finesse and reserve of a lion tamer, who engages his "partner" by showing him the legs of a chair. In other words, effective persuaders don't begin the process by giving their colleagues a clear target in which to set their jaws.

2. They resist compromise. Too many managers see compromise as surrender, but it is essential to con- structive persuasion. Before people buy into a proposal, they want to see that the persuader is flexible enough to respond to their concerns. Compromises can often lead to better, more sustainable shared solutions.

By not compromising, ineffective persuaders un- consciously send the message that they think persua- sion is a one-way street. But persuasion is a process of

give-and-take. Kathleen Reardon, a professor of orga- nizational behavior at the University of Southern Cal- ifornia, points out that a persuader rarely changes an- other person's behavior or viewpoint without altering his or her own in the process. To persuade meaning- fully, we must not only listen to others but also incor- porate their perspectives into our own.

3. They think the secret of persuasion lies in pre- senting great arguments. In persuading people to change their minds, great arguments matter. No doubt ahout it. But arguments, per se, are only one part of the equation. Other factors matter just as much, such as the persuader's credibility and his or her ahiUty to cre- ate a proper, mutually beneficial frame for a position, connect on the right emotional level with an audi- ence, and communicate through vivid language that makes arguments come alive.

4. They assume persuasion is a one-shot effort. Per- suasion is a process, not an event. Rarely, if ever, is it possihle to arrive at a shared solution on the first try. More often than not, persuasion involves listening to people, testing a position, developing a new position that refiects input from the group, more testing, incor- porating compromises, and then trying again. If this sounds like a slow and difficult process, that's because it is. But the results are worth the effort.

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that identifies common ground with those they in- tend to persuade. Third, they reinforce their posi- tions using vivid language and compelling evi- dence. And fourth, they connect emotionally w îth their audience. As one of the most effeetive execu- tives in our research commented, "The most valu- able lesson I've learned about persuasion over the years is that there's just as much strategy in how you present your position as in the position itself. In fact, I'd say the strategy of presentation is the more eritical."

Establish credibility. The first hurdle persuaders must overcome is their own credibility. A persuader can't advocate a nev '̂ or eontrarian position without having people wonder, Can we trust this individ- ual's perspectives and opinions? Such a reaction is understandable. After all, allowing oneself to be persuaded is risky, because any new initiative de- mands a commitment of time and resources. Yet even though persuaders must have high credibility, our research strongly suggests that most managers overestimate tbeir own credibility - considerably.

In the workplace, credibility grows out of two sources: expertise and relationships. People are con- sidered to have higb levels of expertise if they bave a history of sound judgment or have proven tbem- selves knowledgeable and well informed about their proposals. For example, in proposing a new produet idea, an effeetive persuader would need to be perceived as possessing a tborougb understand- ing of tbe product-its specifications, target mar- kets, customers, and competing products. A history of prior successes would further strengthen tbe per-

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suadcr's perceived expertise. One extremely sue- cessful executive in our research bad a track record of 14 years of devising higbly effective advertising campaigns. Not surprisingly, be bad an easy time winning colleagues over to bis position. Anotber manager bad a track record of seven successful new-product launcbes in a period of five years. He, too, bad an advantage wben it came to persuading bis coUeagiies to support bis next new idea.

On tbe relationsbip side, people witb bigb cred- ibility have demonstrated-again, usually over

time - tbat they can be trusted to listen and to work in tbe best interests of otbers. Tbey bave also con- sistently sbown strong emotional cbaraeter and in- tegrity,- tbat is, tbey are not known for mood ex- tremes or inconsistent performance. Indeed, people who are known to be bonest, steady, and reliable bave an edge wben going into any persuasion situa- tion. Because tbeir relationsbips are robust, tbey are more apt to be given tbe benefit of tbe doubt. One effective persuader in our researcb was consid- ered by colleagues to be remarkably trustwortby and fair; many people confided in her. In addition, she generously shared credit for good ideas and pro- vided staff witb exposure to tbe company's senior executives. This woman bad built strong relation- sbips, which ineant her staff and peers were always willing to consider seriously wbat sbe proposed.

If expertise and relationships determine credibil- ity, it is crucial that you undertake an bonest as- sessment of wbere you stand on both criteria before beginning to persuade. To do so, first step baek and ask yourself tbe following questions related to ex- pertise: How will otbers pereeive my knowledge about tbe strategy, product, or change I am propos- ing? Do I have a track record in tbis area tbat otbers know about and respect? Tben, to assess the strength of your relationship credibility, ask your- self. Do tbose I am boping to persuade see me as helpful, trustwortby, and supportive? Will tbey see me as someone in sync witb tbem-emotionally, intellectually, and politically-on issues like this one? Finally, it is important to note that it is not enough to get your own read on tbese matters. You

must also test your answers witb col- leagues you trust to give you a reality cbeek. Only tben will you bave a complete picture of your credibility.

In most eases, tbat exercise helps people discover tbat tbey bave some measure of weakness, eitber on tbe expertise or on tbe relationsbip side of credibility. Tbe challenge tben be- comes to fill in sueb gaps.

In general, if your area of weakness is on the expertise side, you bave several options: • First, you can learn more about tbe complexities of your position tbrougb either formal or informal education and tbrougb conversations witb knowl- edgeable individuals. You migbt also get more rele- vant experience on the job by asking, for instance, to be assigned to a team that would increase your insight into particular markets or products. • Anotber alternative is to birc someone to bolster your expertise-for example, an industry consul- tant or a recognized outside expert, such as a profes-

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sor. Either one may have the knowledge and experi- ence required to support your position effectively. Similarly, you inay tap experts within your organi- zation to advocate your position. Tbeir credibility becomes a substitute for your own. • You can also utilize other outside sources of infor- lnation to support your position, such as respected business or trade periodicals, books, independently produced reports, and lectures by experts. In our research, one executive from the clothing indus- try successfully persuaded his com- pany to reposition an entire product line to a more youthful market after bolstering his credibility with articles by a noted demographer in two highly regarded journals and with two inde- pendent market-research studies. • Finally, you may launch pilot projects to demon- strate on a small scale your expertise and the value of your ideas.

As for filling in the relationship gap: • You should make a concerted effort to meet one- on-one with all the key people you plan to per- suade. This is not the time to outline your position but rather to get a range of perspectives on the issue at hand. If you have the time and resources, you should even offer to help these people with issues that concern them. • Another option is to involve like-minded cowork- ers who already have strong relationships with your audience. Again, that is a matter of seeking out sub- stitutes on your own behalf.

For an example of how these strategies can be put to work, consider the case of a chief operating offi- cer of a large retail bank, whom we will call Tom Smith. Although he was new to his job. Smith ar- dently wanted to persuade the senior management team that the company was in serious trouble. He believed that the bank's overhead was excessive and would jeopardize its position as the industry entered a more competitive era. Most of his col- leagues, however, did not see the potential serious- ness of the situation. Because the bank had been enormously successful in recent years, they be- lieved changes in the industry posed little danger. In addition to being newly appointed. Smith had another problem: his career had been in financial services, and he was considered an outsider in the World of retail banking. Thus he had few personal connections to draw on as he made his case, nor Was he perceived to be particularly knowledgeable about marketplace exigencies.

As a first step in establishing credibility. Smith hired an external consultant with respected creden-

tials in the industry who showed that the bank was indeed poorly positioned to be a low-cost producer. In a series of interactive presentations to the bank's top-level management, the consultant revealed how the company's leading competitors were tak- ing aggressive actions to contain operating costs. He made it clear from these presentations that not

A pei'siiader should make a conceited effort to meet one-on-one

with all the key people he or she plans to persuade.

cutting costs would soon cause the bank to fall drastically behind the competition. These findings were then distributed in written reports that eircu- lated throughout the bank.

Next, Smith determined that the bank's branch managers were critical to his campaign. The buy-in of those respected and informed individuals would signal to others in the company that his concerns were valid. Moreover, Smith looked to the branch managers because he believed that tbey could in- crease his expertise about marketplace trends and also help him test his own assumptions. Thus, for the next three months, he visited every branch in his region of Ontario, Canada-135 in all. During each visit, he spent time with branch managers, lis- tening to their perceptions of the bank's strengths and weaknesses. He learned firsthand about the competition's initiatives and customer trends, and he solicited ideas for improving the bank's serviees and niinimizing costs. By the time he was through. Smith had a broad perspective on the bank's future that few people even in senior management pos- sessed. And he had built dozens of relationships in the process.

Finally, Smith launched some small but highly visible initiatives to demonstrate his expertise and eapabilities. Eor example, he was eoncerned about slow growth ill the company's mortgage business and the loan offieers' resulting slip in morale. So he devised a program in which new mortgage cus- tomers would make no payments for the first 90 days. The initiative proved remarkably successful, and in short order Smith appeared to be a far more savvy retail banker than anyone had assumed.

Another example of how to establish credibility conies from Microsoft. In 1990, two product-devel- opment managers, Karen Fries and Barry Linnett,

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came to believe that the market would greatly wel- come software that featured a "social interface." They envisioned a package that would employ ani- mated human and animal characters to show users how to go ahout their computing tasks.

Inside Microsoft, however, employees had imme- diate eoneerns about the eoneept. Software pro- grammers ridiculed the eute characters. Animated characters had been used before only in software for children, making their use in adult environments

In some situations, no shared advantages are readily apparent. In these cases, effective persuaders

positions.

hard to envision. But Fries and Linnett felt their proposed product had both dynainlsm and com- plexity, and they remained convinced that con- sumers would eagerly buy such programs. They also believed that the home-computer software market-largely untapped at the time and with fewer software standards-would be open to such innovation.

Within the company. Fries had gained quite a bit of relationship credibility. She had started out as a recruiter for the company in 1987 and had worked directly for many of Microsoft's senior executives. They trusted and liked her. In addition, she had heen responsihle for hiring the company's product and program managers. As a result, she knew all the senior people at Microsoft and had hired many of the people who would be deciding on her product.

Linnett's strength laid in his expertise. In particu- lar, he knew the technology behind an innovative tutorial program called PC Works. In addition, hoth Fries and Linnett had managed Publisher, a product with a unique help feature called Wizards, whieh Microsoft's CEO, Bill Gates, had liked. But those factors were sufficient only to get an initial hearing from Microsoft's senior management. To persuade the organization to move forward, the pair would need to improve perceptions of their expertise. It hurt them that this type of social-interface software had no proven track record of success and that they were both novices with such software. Their chal- lenge became one of finding substitutes for their own expertise.

Their first step was a wise one. From within Mi- crosoft, they hired respected technical guru Darrin

Massena. With Massena, they developed a set of prototypes to demonstrate that they did indeed un- derstand the software's technology and could make it work. They then tested the prototypes in market research, and users responded enthusiastically. Fi- nally, and most important, they enlisted two Stan- ford University professors, Clifford Nass and Bryon Reeves, hoth experts in human-computer interac- tion. In several nieetings with Microsoft senior managers and Gates himself, they presented a rigor-

ously compiled and thorough body of research that demonstrated how and why social-interface software was ide- ally suited to the average computer user. In addition. Fries and Linnett asserted that considerahle jumps in computing power would make more realistic cartoon characters an in- creasingly malleable technology. Their product, tbey said, was the lead- ing edge of an incipient software rev-

olution. Convinced, Gates approved a full product- development team, and in January 1995, the product called BOB was launched. BOB went on to sell more than half a million copies, and its concept and technology are being used within Mierosoft as a platform for developing several Internet products.

Credibility is the cornerstone of effective per- suading; without it, a persuader won't be given the time of day. In the best-case scenario, people enter into a persuasion situation with some measure of expertise and relationship credibility. But it is im- portant to note that credibility along either lines can be built or bought. Indeed, it must be, or the next steps arc an exercise in futility.

Frame for common ground. Even if your credi- bility is high, your position must still appeal strongly to the people you are trying to persuade. After all, few people will jump on hoard a train that will hring them to ruin or even mild discomfort. Effective persuaders must he adept at descrihing their positions in terms that illuminate their ad- vantages. As any parent can tell you, the fastest way to get a child to come along willingly on a trip to the grocery store is to point out that there are lollipops by tbe cash register. That is not deception. It is just a persuasive way of framing the benefits of taking such a journey. In work situations, persua- sive framing is obviously more complex, but the underlying principle is the same. It is a process of identifying shared benefits.

Monica Ruffo, an account executive for an adver- tising agency, offers a good example of persuasive framing. Her client, a fast-food chain, was institut- ing a promotional campaign in Canada; menu

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items sueh as a hamburger, fries, and eola were to be bundled together and sold at a low price. The strategy made sense to eorporate headquarters. Its research showed that consumers thought the com- pany's products were higher priced than the compe- tition's, and the eompany was anxious to overeome this perception. The franchisees, on the other hand, were still experieneing strong sales and were far more concerned about the short-term impact that the new, low prices would have on their profit margins.

A less experienced persuader would have attempted to rationalize headquar- ters' perspective to the franchisees-to eonvince them of its validity. But Ruffo framed the change in pricing to demon- strate its benefits to the franchisees themselves. The new value eampaigii, she explained, would aetually improve franchisees' profits. To baek up this point, she drew on several sources. A pilot project in Tennessee, for instance, had demonstrated that under the new pricing scheme, the sales of french fries and d r inks - the two most profitable items on the menu-had markedly in- ereased. In addition, the company had rolled out medium-sized meal packages in 80% of its U.S. outlets, and fran- chisees' sales of fries and drinks had jumped 26%. Citing research from a re- spected business periodical, Ruffo also showed that when customers raised their estimate of the value they receive from a retail establishment by 10%, the establishment's sales rose by 1%. She had estimated that the new meal plan would increase value perceptions by 100%, with the result that franchisee sales could be expected to grow 10%.

Ruffo closed her presentation with a letter written many years before by the company's founder to the organization. It was an emotional letter extolling the values of the eompany and stressing the impor- tanee of the franehisees to the company's success. It also highlighted the importance of the company's position as the low-price leader in the industiy. The beliefs and values contained in the letter had long been etched in the minds of Ruffo's audience. Hear- ing them again only confirmed the company's con- eerii for the franchisees and the importance of their winning formula. They also won Ruffo a standing ovation. That day, the franchisees voted unani- mously to support the new meal-pricing plan.

The Ruffo ease illustrates why-in choosing ap- propriate positioning-it is critical first to identify your objective's tangible benefits to the people you are trying to persuade. Sometimes that is easy. Mu- tual benefits exist. In other situations, however, no shared advantages are readily apparent-or mean- ingful. In these cases, effective persuaders adjust their positions. They know it is impossible to en-

When a fast-food chain needed to persuade its franchisees to buy into a meal-pricing plan that had the potential to eat into profits, headquarters framed the initiative to accent the positive.

gage people and gain eommitment to ideas or plans without highlighting the advantages to all the par- ties involved.

At the heart of framing is a solid understanding of your audience. Even before starting to persuade, the best persuaders we have encountered closely study the issues that matter to their eolleagues. They use conversations, meetings, and other forms of dia- logue to collect essential information. They are good at listening. They test tbeir ideas with trusted confidants, and they ask questions of the people

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they will later be persuading. Those steps help them think through the arguments, the evidence, and the perspectives they will present. Oftentimes, this process causes them to alter or comproinise their own plans hefore they even start persuading. It is through this thoughtful, inquisitive approach they develop frames that appeal to their audience.

Consider the case of a manager who was in charge of process engineering for a jet engine manufac- turer. He had redesigned the work flow for routine turbine maintenance for airline clients in a manner

Numbers do not make an emotional impact, but stories and vivid language do.

that would dramatically shorten the turnaround time for servicing. Before presenting his ideas to the company's president, he consulted a good friend in the company, the vice president of engineering, who knew the president well. This conversation re- vealed that the president's prime concern would not be speed or efficiency but profitability. To get the president's huy-in, the vice president explained, the new system would have to improve the com- pany's profitahility in the short run by lowering op- erating expenses.

At first this information had the manager stumped. He had planned to focus on efficiency and had even intended to request additional funding to make the process work. But his conversation with the vice president sparked hiin to change his posi- tion, hideed, be went so far as to change the work- flow design itself so that it no longer required new investment but rather drove down costs. He then carefully documented the cost savings and prof- itability gains that his new plan would produce and presented this revised plan to the president. With his initiative positioned anew, the manager per- suaded the president and got the project approved.

Provide evidence. With credihility established and a common frame identified, persuasion be- comes a matter of presenting evidence. Ordinary evidence, however, won't do. We have found that the most effective persuaders use language in a par- ticular way. They supplement numerical data with examples, stories, metaphors, and analogies to make their positions come alive. That use of lan- guage paints a vivid word picture and, in doing so, lends a compelling and tangible quality to the per- suader's point of view.

Think about a typical persuasion situation. The persuader is often advocating a goal, strategy, or ini- tiative with an uncertain outcome. Karen Fries and Barry Linnett, for instance, wanted Microsoft to in- vest millions of dollars in a software package with chancy technology and unknown market demand. The team could have supported its case solely with market research, financial projections, and the like. But that would have been a mistake, heeause re- search shows that most people perceive sueh reports as not entirely informative. They arc too abstract to

be completely meaningful or memo- rable. In essence, the numbers don't make an emotional impact.

By contrast, stories and vivid lan- guage do, particularly when they pre- sent coinparable situations to the one under discussion. A marketing man- ager trying to persuade senior exec- utives to invest in a new product, for

example, might cite examples of similar invest- ments that paid off handsomely. Indeed, we found that people readily draw lessons from such cases. More important, the research shows that listeners absorb information in proportion to its vividness. Thus it is no wonder that Fries and Linnett hit a home run when they presented their ease for BOB with the following analogy:

Imagine you want to cook dinner and you must first go to the supermarket. You have all the flexibiUty you want - you can cook anything in the world as long as you know how and have the time and desire to do it. When you arrive at the supermarket, you find all these overstuffed aisles with cryptie single-word headings like "sundries" and "ethnic food" and "condiments." These are the menus on typical computer interfaces. The ques- tion is whether salt is under condiments or ethnic food or near the potato chip section. There are surrounding racks and wall spaces, much as our software interfaces now have support buttons, tool bars, and lines around the perimeters. Now after you have collected everything, you still need to put it all together in the correct order to make a meal. If you're a good cook, your meal will proba- bly be good. If you're a novice, it prohahly won't he.

We [at Mierosoft] have heen selling under the super- market category for years, and we think there is a big opportunity for restaurants. That's what we are trying to do now with BOB: pushing the next step with software that is more hke going to a restaurant, so the user doesn't spend all of his time searching for the ingredients. We find and put the ingredients together. You sit down, you get comfortable. We bring you a menu. We do the work, you relax. It's an enjoyable experience. No walking around lost trying to find things, no cooking. '

Had Fries and Linnett used a literal description of BOB's advantages, few of their highly computer-

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literate colleagues at Mierosoft would have person- ally related to the menu-searching frustration that BOB was designed to eliminate. The analogy they selected, however, made BOB's purpose both con- crete and memorable.

A master persuader, Mary Kay Ash, the founder of Mary Kay Cosmeties, regularly draws on analo- gies to illustrate and "sell" the business eonduct she values. Consider this speech at the company's annual sales convention:

Back in the days of the Roman Empire, the legions of the emperor conquered the known world. There was, however, one hand of people that the Romans never con- quered. Those people were the followers of the great teacher from Bethlehem. Historians have long since dis- covered that one of the reasons for the sturdiness of this folk was their hahit of meeting together weekly. They shared their difficulties, and they stood side by side. Does this remind you of something? The way we stand side by side and share our knowledge and difficulties with each other in our weekly unit meetings? I have so often ob- served when a director or unit memher is confronted with a personal problem that the unit stands together in helping that sister in distress. What a wonderful circle of friendships we have. Perhaps it's one of the greatest fringe benefits of our company.

Through her vivid analogy. Ash links collective support in the company to a courageous period in Christian history. In doing so, she accomplishes several objeetives. First, she drives home her belief that collective support is crucial to the success of the organization. Most Mary Kay salespeople are independent operators who face the daily chal- lenges of direct selling. An emotional support sys- tem of fellow salespeople is essential to ensure that self-esteem and eonfidenee remain iiitaet in the face of rejection. Next she suggests by her analogy that solidarity against the odds is the

First, they show their own emotional commitment to the position they are advocating. Sueh expres- sion is a delicate matter. If you act too emotional, people may doubt your clearheadedness. But you must also show that your commitment to a goal is not just in your mind but in your heart and gut as well. Without this demonstration of feeling, people may wonder if you actually believe in the position you're championing.

Perhaps more important, however, is that effec- tive persuaders have a strong and accurate sense of their audience's emotional state, and they adjust the tone of their arguments accordingly. Some- times that means coming on strong, with forceful points. Other times, a whisper may he all that is required. The idea is that whatever your position, you match your emotional fervor to your audi- ence's ability to receive the message.

Effeetive persuaders seem to have a second sense about how their colleagues have interpreted past events in the organization and how they will proba- bly inteipiet a proposal. The best persuaders in our study would usually canvass key individuals who had a good pulse on the mood and emotional expec- tations of those about to be persuaded. They would ask those individuals how various proposals might affect colleagues on an emotional level-in essence, testing possible reactions. They were also quite ef- fective at gathering information through informal conversations in the hallways or at lunch. In the end, their aim was to ensure tbat the emotional ap- peal behind their persuasion matched what their audience was already feeling or expecting.

To illustrate the importance of emotional match- making in persuasion, consider this example. The president of an aeronautics manufacturing com- pany strongly believed that the maintenance costs

best way to stymie powerful oppres- . -. «_ 1 1 * 1

sors to wit, the competition. Finally, A persuadcr l i iust matc l i Jiis 01" Her

emotional fervor to the audience's ability to receive the message.

Ash's ehoice of analogy imbues a sense of a heroic mission to the work of her sales force.

You probably don't need to invoke the analogy of the Christian struggle to support your position, but effeetive persuaders are not afraid of unleashing the im- mense power of language. In faet, they use it to their utmost advantage.

Connect emotionally. In the business world, we like to think that our colleagues use reason to make their decisions, yet if we seratch below the surface we will always find emotions at play. Good per- suaders are aware of the primacy of emotions and are responsive to them in two important ways.

and turnaround time of the company's U.S. and for- eign competitors were so much better than his own company's that it stood to lose customers and prof- its. He wanted to communicate his fear and his ur- gent desire for change to his senior managers. So one afternoon, he called them into the boardroom. On an overhead screen was the projeeted image of a smiling man flying an old-fashioned biplane with his searf blowing in the wind. The right half of the

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THE NECESSARY ART OF PERSUASION

transparency was covered. When everyone was seated, the president explained that he felt as this pilot did, given the company's recent good fortune. The organization, after all, had just flnished its most successful year in history. But then with a deep sigh, he announced that his happiness was quickly vanishing. As the president lifted the remaining portion of the sheet, he revealed an im- age of the pilot flying directly into a wall. The presi- dent then faced his audience and in a heavy voice said, "This is what I see happening to us." He asserted that the company was headed for a crash if people didn't take action fast. He then went on to lecture the group ahout the steps needed to counter this threat. \ [

The reaction from the group was immediate and negative. Directly af- ter the meeting, managers gathered in small clusters in the hallways to talk about the president's "scare tactics." They resented what they perceived to be the president's overstate- ment of the case. As the lnanagers saw it, they had exerted enormous effort that year to break the com- pany's records in sales and profitability. They were proud of their achievements. In fact, they had en- tered the meeting expecting it would he the mo- ment of recognition. But to their absolute surprise, they were scolded.

The president's mistake? First, he should have canvassed a few meinbers of his senior teain to as- certain the emotional state of the group. From that, he would have learned that they were in need of thanks and recognition. He should then have held a separate session devoted simply to praising the team's accomplishments. Later, in a second meet- ing, he could have expressed his own anxieties about the coining year. And rather than blame the team for ignoring the future, he eould have calmly described what he saw as emerging threats to the company and then asked his manageincnt team to help him develop new initiatives.

Now let us look at someone who found the right emotional match with his audience: Robert Mar- cell, head of Chrysler's small-car design team. In the early 1990s, Chrysler was eager to produce a new subcompact-indeed, the company had not introduced a new model of this type since 1978. But senior managers at Chrysler did not want to go it alone. They thought an alliance with a foreign man- ufacturer would improve the car's design and pro- tect Chrysler's cash stores.

Marcell was convinced otherwise. He believed that the company should hring the design and pro- duction of a new subcompact in-house. He knew

that persuading senior managers would be difficult, hut he also had his own team to contend with. Team members had lost their confidence that they would ever again have the opportunity to create a good car. They were also angry that the United States had once again given up its position to foreign eompetitors w ĥen it came to small cars.

Marcell decided that his persuasion tactics had to be built around emotional themes that would

ll's important for people Lo 'stand persuasion for what

s-noi convincing and scUing negolialing

touch his audience. From innumerable conversa- tions around the company, he learned that many people felt as he did-that to surrender the subeom- pact's design to a foreign manufacturer was to sur- render the company's soul and, ultimately, its ahil- ity to provide jobs. In addition, he felt deeply that his organization was a talented group hungry for a challenge and an opportunity to restore its self- esteem and pride. He would need to demonstrate his faith in the team's abilities.

Marcell prepared a 15-minute talk built around slides of his hometown. Iron River, a now defunct mining town in Upper Michigan, devastated, in large part, by foreign mining companies. On the screen flashed recent photographs he had taken of his boarded-up high school, the shuttered homes of his childhood friends, the crumbling ruins of the town's ironworks, closed churches, and an aban- doned railroad yard. After a description of each of these places, he said the phrase, "We couldn't com- pete"-like the refrain of a hymn. Marcell's point was that the same outcome awaited Detroit if the production of small cars was not brought back to the United States. Surrender was the enemy, he said, and devastation would follow if the group did not take immediate action.

Marcell ended his slide show on a hopeful note. He spoke of his pride in his design group and then challenged the team to build a "made-in-America" suhcompact that would prove that the United States could still compete. The speech, which echoed the exact sentiments of the audience, rekin- dled the group's fighting spirit. Shortly after the speech, group members began drafting their ideas for a new car.

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THE NECESSARY ART OF PERSUASION

Marcell then took his slide show to the eoni- pany's senior management and ul t imately to Chrysler chairman Lee Iaeoeea. As Marcell showed his slides, he could see that Iacocca was touched. Iacocca, after all, was a fighter and a strongly patri- otic man himself. In fact, Marcell's approach was not too different from Iacocca's earlier appeal to the United States Congress to save Chrysler. At the end of the show, Mareell stopped and said, "If we dare to he different, we could be the reason the U.S. auto industry survives. We could be the reason our kids and grandkids don't end up working at fast-food chains." Iacocca stayed on for two hours as Marcell explained in greater detail what his team was plan- ning. Afterward, Iaeoeea changed his mind and gave Marcell's group approval to develop a car, the Neon.

With both groups, Marcell skillfully matched his emotional tenor to that of the group he was address- ing. The ideas he conveyed resonated deeply with his largely Midwestern audience. And rather than leave them in a depressed state, he offered them hope, which was more persuasive than promising doom. Again, this played to the strong patriotic sentiments of his American-heartland audience.

No effort to persuade can succeed without emo- tion, but showing too much emotion can be as un- productive as showing too little. The important point to remember is that you must match your emotions to your audience's.

The Force of Persuasion The eoneept of persuasion, like that of power, often confuses and even mystifies businesspeople. It is so eomplex-and so dangerous when mishandled- that many would rather just avoid it altogether. But like power, persuasion can be a force for enormous good in an organization. It can pull people together, move ideas forward, galvanize change, and forge constructive solutions. To do all that, however, people must understand persuasion for what it i s - not convincing and selling but learning and negoti- ating. Furthermore, it must be seen as an art form tbat requires commitment and practice, especially as today's husiness contingencies make persuasion more neeessary than ever. 9

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