LITERATURE REVIEW

Public Personnel Management 2015, Vol. 44(4) 473 –495

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Article

The Missing Link of Value Congruence and Its Consequences: The Mediating Role of Employees’ Acceptance of Organizational Vision

Geunpil Ryu1

Abstract The current study examines an underlying mechanism of value congruence effect transmitted via vision acceptance on work outcomes such as job satisfaction and affective commitment. It addresses two main research questions: (a) whether value congruence affects job satisfaction and affective commitment and (b) whether employees’ acceptance of organizational vision mediates the relationship between value congruence and outcomes, such as job satisfaction and affective commitment. As a result, the presence of value congruence effects on job satisfaction and affective commitment was not supported. However, the mediating effects of employees’ vision acceptance on the relationship between value congruence and the outcomes were supported.

Keywords value congruence, vision acceptance, job satisfaction, affective commitment

Introduction

Promoting employees’ understanding of and commitment to a new organizational vision or goals is the most important task for many top leaders in public organizations. Accordingly, leaders try to communicate the new vision or goals to their subordinates to gain their buy-in (Kotter, 1996). Still, leaders often find that their subordinates do

1POSCO Group University, Pohang, South Korea

Corresponding Author: Geunpil Ryu, Senior Consultant, HRD & Innovation Consulting Center, POSCO Group University, 120 Jigok-ro, Pohang, Kyungbok, 790-834, South Korea. Email: [email protected]

592233PPMXXX10.1177/0091026015592233ArticlePublic Personnel ManagementRyu research-article2015

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not even know the new vision or goals, despite consistent administrative efforts to make them understand and accept the new vision or goals. Thus, a crucial question for leaders in public organizations is how they can make their subordinates understand and support a new vision or goals.

Organizational behavior scholars have consistently reported that when employees hold similar values to the values of their employing organization, the employees expe- rience beneficial outcomes, such as higher job satisfaction and organizational commit- ment and higher intent to stay in the organization (Edwards & Cable, 2009; Kristof-Brown, Zimmerman, & Johnson, 2005; Ostroff, Shin, & Kinicki, 2005). As Edwards and Cable (2009) noted, however, there has been rare research on how value congruence is connected to the beneficial outcomes. Furthermore, to my knowledge, there has been no study exploring the mediation effect of employees’ acceptance of an organizational vision between value congruence and outcomes such as job satisfaction and affective commitment.

The primary purpose of this present study was to explore the mediation effect of employees’ vision acceptance on the relationship between value congruence and related beneficial outcomes. Polynomial regression and response surface analysis were used to address the research questions as Edwards and his colleagues demon- strated that using polynomial regression to generate three-dimensional response sur- faces to examine congruence effects on outcome variables provides more reliable results than any other analytic method (Edwards, 1994; Edwards & Parry, 1993).

This study has the potential to contribute to theoretical connections between value congruence effects and outcomes such as high job satisfaction and affective commit- ment. Although most team leaders know that their organizational vision is important, they spend little time encouraging their followers to learn and accept the vision because they believe that most subordinates already know and support it. However, one impor- tant role of leaders is motivating their followers to achieve the organizational vision by inspiring them to agree with and accept the vision instead of just acknowledging it (Kaplan, 2011). This research helps answer the practical question of why leaders in public organizations should do their best to communicate new organizational visions to followers to promote vision acceptance.

Theoretical Background

Value Congruence

Values are generally defined as “an enduring belief that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence” (Rokeach, 1973, p. 5). Values are considered global beliefs about desirable end-states that influence individuals’ attitudes or behaviors (Connor & Becker, 1975). Furthermore, they have normative perspectives because social norms or expectations affect individuals’ value sets (Vardi & Wiener, 1996).

Person–organization fit is defined as the “congruence between the norms and val- ues of organizations and the values of persons” (Chatman, 1989, p. 339). In this

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definition, person–organization fit is conceptually operationalized in terms of value congruence. However, value congruence is one type of person–organization fit, typi- cally conceptualized in terms of value, goal, climate, and cultural congruence (Kristof, 1996; Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). In this research, value congruence refers to the perceived similarity between values held by individuals and those of organizations (Chatman, 1989; Edwards & Cable, 2009).

The Effects of Value Congruence

Job satisfaction is defined as “a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of one’s job or job experiences” (Locke, 1976, p. 1300). The appraisal process has three elements: (a) the perception of some aspect of the job, (b) an implicit or explicit value standard by an individual, and (c) a judgment of the relationship between one’s perception of the job and one’s perceived value of the job (Locke, 1976). This definition suggests that employees are more likely to have higher job satisfaction when their needs or wants concerning a particular job perspective are satisfied through the appraisal process (Edwards, 2008). For example, given that an employee wants higher job autonomy but he or she perceives low autonomy at the job, he or she reflects lower job satisfaction because this aspect of the job was not satisfactory.

Individuals who perceived higher value congruence in the workplace show higher job satisfaction (Kalliath, Bluedorn, & Strube, 1999). Value congruence may facilitate higher quality of the relationship between followers and leaders, thus resulting in higher job satisfaction (Zhang, Wang, & Shi, 2012). In an organization with a demo- graphically heterogeneous setting, for instance, employees are more likely to experi- ence miscommunication between team members (Chatman & Flynn, 2001; Tsui & O’Reilly, 1989). Under these circumstances, the employees might show lower job satisfaction when their high needs for high performance are not met by the difficulty in communications with their colleagues.

Empirical studies have supported that a positive relationship exists between value congruence effect and job satisfaction. For example, higher congruence between employees’ work values and those of their supervisors was associated with higher job satisfaction (Meglino, Ravlin, & Adkins, 1989; Zhang et al., 2012). Higher congru- ence between individuals’ values and cultural values of the organization was found to lead to higher job satisfaction (Ostroff et al., 2005). Therefore, it is expected that when individuals have higher value congruence than others, they might have higher satisfac- tion for their jobs than others.

Hypothesis 1: Employees who have higher value congruence with an organization are more likely to have higher job satisfaction than others.

Organizational commitment is defined as the “psychological attachment” to orga- nizational membership (O’Reilly & Chatman, 1986, p. 492). It can be divided into three sub-concepts: (a) affective commitment, (b) continuance commitment, and (c) normative commitment (Allen & Meyer, 1990; Meyer & Allen, 1991). Affective

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commitment refers to “employees’ emotional attachment to, identification with, and involvement in the organization” (Meyer & Allen, 1991, p. 67). In prior research, affective commitment has been shown to have the strongest and most favorable rela- tions with organization-relevant and employee-relevant outcomes (Meyer, Stanley, Herscovitch, & Topolnytsky, 2002).

In general, value congruence is positively related to the concept of affective com- mitment. For example, perceived fit mechanisms between an organization and employ- ees’ individual characteristics explain employees’ higher affective commitment (Bergman, 2006; Meyer, Irving, & Allen, 1998). Employees show higher identity with their organizational membership when the visions of their organization become con- gruent with their own (Mowday, Steers, & Porter, 1979).

The attraction–selection–attrition (ASA) model (Schneider, Goldstein, & Smith, 1995) posits that job applicants are more likely to apply to organizations that provide a high level of perceived fit, while organizations tend to select job seekers who are perceived by the employers or job interviewers as having a higher fit. Employees sub- sequently leave organizations if they feel there is a misfit. Bergman (2006) argued that affective commitment develops through the socialization process, which is defined as the process by which an individual comes to understand values, abilities, expected behaviors, and norms (Chatman, 1989). Employees who perceive higher value con- gruence with their organization may show higher affective commitment (i.e., psycho- logical attachment to their organizational membership) than other employees.

In support of this argument, prior studies have shown a positive relationship between value congruence and organizational commitment. For instance, subordinates who perceived higher value congruence with their managers reported higher organiza- tional commitment than others (Meglino et al., 1989). More generally, employees who had higher value congruence showed higher organizational commitment than others (Amos & Weathington, 2008; O’Reilly, Chatman, & Caldwell, 1991). Value congru- ence between innovation values and personal values is more strongly related to employees’ commitment to implementation of innovation behavior (Choi & Price, 2005). Therefore, we can expect that individuals who have higher value congruence with their organization might report a higher level of affective commitment than others.

Hypothesis 2: Employees who have higher value congruence with their organiza- tion are more likely to show higher levels of affective commitment than others.

The Mediating Role of Employees’ Acceptance of Organizational Vision

Organizational visions are variously defined. For example, organizational visions refer to collective goals and aspirations of an organization’s members (Tsai & Ghoshal, 1998). It means a desirable state that emphasizes the uniqueness of an organization for the future (Greenwood & Hinings, 1996). Founders’ visions are typically enacted on specific policies and practices to achieve these visions, and the combinations of visions and practices yield unique characteristics of the organization, such as its culture,

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structure, and work process (Schein, 1985; Schneider et al., 1995). Depending on how employees accept or agree with their organizational visions, organizational visions distinguish goals into two types: (a) transitive vision and (b) reflective vision. A transi- tive vision refers to a vision intended by the organization, whereas a reflective vision refers to the state whereby employees accept the transitive vision (Mohr, 1973). As such, individuals might have respectively different levels of acceptance and agreement with visions, which their organization aspires.

There has been a theoretical view that employees’ acceptance of the organizational vision may mediate the relationship between value congruence and outcomes. For example, people in the workplace may perceive whether the norms and values of their organization (i.e., organizational culture) are matched well with their own personal values. Employees who perceive higher value congruence with their organizations are more likely to accept organizational visions, thus resulting in positive job attitudes and higher affective commitment (Posner, Kouzes, & Schmidt, 1985). When employees perceive higher value congruence with their organization, they are more likely to feel integrally involved with the vision of the organization (Cable & DeRue, 2002; Kristof- Brown & Stevens, 2001). However, in some instances, a new top leader who is politi- cally appointed in a public organization may change the organizational vision and try to share the new vision with employees. Given that situation, the new values of the organization may no longer align with some employees’ values, and thus, those employees must determine whether they will accept the new vision. Depending on their decision, they may develop a different job attitude and psychological attachment to the organization.

The visions accepted by the employees may lead to positive job attitudes such as higher job satisfaction (Testa, 1999). Similarly, having higher levels of vision agree- ment positively and significantly affected affective commitment and job satisfaction (Dvir, Kass, & Shamir, 2004). Therefore, we can predict that employees’ acceptance of organizational vision mediates the relationship between value congruence and the work outcomes.

Hypothesis 3a: Employees’ acceptance of organizational vision mediates the rela- tionship between value congruence and job satisfaction. Hypothesis 3b: Employees’ acceptance of organizational vision mediates the rela- tionship between value congruence and affective commitment.

Method

Data and Sample

Data were collected to assess the value congruence of public employees from six large central government agencies in South Korea; these employees represented a wide range of job types and positions after a major reorganization of multiple agencies in 2008. The survey was administered electronically, meaning all employees in the agen- cies were electronically invited to respond to the survey and were ensured response

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confidentiality. In total, 2,282 employees from the 6 public agencies completed the survey, yielding a 42% response rate. In the final analysis, 2,176 usable survey responses were used.

About 75.14% of the respondents were male, and approximately 80% were in their 30s and 40s. Managers comprised 13% of the respondents. In terms of length of employment, 25.88% of the respondents had job tenure of more than 20 years, 19.3% had tenure between 11 and 15 years, 18.68% had tenure between 16 and 20 years, and 13.83% had tenure between 6 and 10 years.

The survey respondents were assessed regarding their representative quality, par- ticularly in terms of whether they accurately reflected the total population of the South Korean central government. Using the 2008 annual statistics of the Ministry of Public Administration and Security, gender and manager ratios were compared using a two- sample proportion ratio test between samples and the population. Findings revealed that survey respondents were not statistically different from the population in terms of gender and manager versus non-manager composition (z = 1.21 and p > .10 for the gender ratio; z = 0.69 and p > .10 for the manager vs. non-manager ratio).

Measures

Value congruence. A competing value framework developed by Cameron and Quinn (2006) was used to assess value congruence as prior studies have done (e.g., Finegan, 2000; Kalliath et al., 1999). The framework is used because it allows the researcher to compare the differences between an individual’s preferred values against the organi- zation’s values. The organizational culture assessment instruments (OCAI) survey assesses four core value sets: (a) clan, (b) adhocracy, (c) market, and (d) hierarchy. The clan culture represents an organization, which is characterized by cohesion, par- ticipation, mutual help, and a sense of “we-ness.” By contrast, hierarchical culture emphasizes a clear organizational structure, standardized rules and procedures, and well-defined responsibilities. A market culture represents a results-focused organiza- tion where individuals are competitive and focused on goal accomplishment. Last, an adhocracy culture implies a dynamic and creative place to work, which emphasizes innovation (Cameron & Quinn, 2006).

There are two types of measurements for value congruence: direct measurement and indirect measurement. Direct measurement explicitly asks people the extent to which they subjectively perceive the presence of good fit. For example, researchers asked respondents the following: “To what degree do you feel your values ‘match’ or fit this organization?” Conversely, indirect measurement (i.e., actual fit measurement) assesses congruence by asking two questions about individual preference and organizational actuality. For example, researchers may first ask respondents to identify the degree to which hierarchy is actually valued by the organization, followed by a question assess- ing the degree to which the value of hierarchy is preferred by the individual respondents (Kristof, 1996). The current study uses indirect measurements to decompose the value congruence effect on the outcomes from other types of fit (Edwards, 1996). Value con- gruence was thus assessed by the actual differences between an individual’s preferred

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values against values held by the organization (Edwards & Cable, 2009; Kalliath et al., 1999).

Acceptance of organizational vision. Acceptance of organizational vision was measured by two survey items. One survey item stated, “I know our organizational vision well”; the second item stated, “I understand and agree with our organizational vision.” Response options were structured in a 7-point Likert-type scale format, with 1 indicating the respondent strongly disagreed to 7 indicating strongly agreed (α = .88).

Job satisfaction. Job satisfaction was measured by three survey items from the job descriptive index (Smith, Kendall, & Hulin, 1969). One survey item indicated “overall satisfaction on job”; the second item indicated “overall satisfaction on working envi- ronments”; and third item indicated “overall satisfaction on career development.” Response options were structured on a 5-point Likert-type scale, with 1 indicating the respondent strongly disagreed to 5 indicating strongly agreed (α = .87).

Affective commitment. Affective commitment was measured by two survey items from Allen and Meyer (1990), as follows: (a) “I feel strong sense of belonging to this orga- nization” and (b) “I am proud that I am part of this organization.” Response options were structured in a 5-point Likert-type scale format, with 1 indicating the respondent strongly disagreed to 5 indicating strongly agreed (α = .85).

Control variables. Gender, job tenure, and position of respondent were controlled for in this study. First, job tenure was controlled for because it is known to moderate the relationship between value congruence and job satisfaction (Adkins, Ravlin, & Meg- lino, 1996). Second, gender was controlled for because men and women have signifi- cantly different levels of job satisfaction (Hulin & Smith, 1964) and organizational commitment (Masden, Kelleberg, & Cook, 1993). Finally, job position was controlled for because job promotion positively affects the levels of organizational commitment (Steers, 1977) and job satisfaction (Porter, Steers, Mowday, & Boulian, 1974).

Analysis

Some scholars have assessed value congruence using algebraic difference indices, such as |A – B| or (A – B)2 (e.g., French, Caplan, & Harrison, 1982) or profile similarity index (e.g., O’Reilly et al., 1991). However, those algebraic or similarity indices could confound the effects of their components, concealing their relative contribution to the relationship between the index and outcomes (Edwards, 1994; Edwards & Parry, 1993). Hence, Edwards and his colleagues (Edwards & Cable, 2009; Edwards & Parry, 1993) have consistently recommended polynomial regression and three-dimensional response surfaces for more reliable assessment of value congruence effects. Thus, this research used polynomial regression and response surface analysis.

Figure 1 represents a hypothetical relationship among the three variables from the poly- nomial regression results, namely, it presents the response surface in a three-dimensional

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space when both O (i.e., organizational value) and I (i.e., individual value) exhibit a perfectly congruent relationship with the outcome variable. Specially, there are three major features of the hypothetical relationship: (a) the stationary point, (b) the first principal axes (FPA) of the surface, and (c) the slopes of the surface along the congru- ence line. The stationary point refers to a point where the slope of the surface is 0 in all directions. The FPA refers to a line along which the surface’s upward curvature is greatest. Finally, the slope of the surface refers to angles of the line along the congru- ence line (Edwards & Parry, 1993).

Response surface analysis requires that three conditions be met to support a rela- tionship between value congruence and organizational commitment: (a) The response surface from the model estimates should be a reverse U-shape (i.e., concave shape); (b) the FPA should be parallel with the congruence line; and (c) the slopes along the congruence line should be flat (Edwards & Cable, 2009). First, the most important precondition for the presence of the effect of value congruence on the dependent vari- ables is that the estimated response surface should be reverse U-shaped. In Figure 1, this means that people at Point C or D—far away from the value congruence line— have the lowest level of the outcome variable, whereas people on the congruence line

Figure 1. An example of a hypothetical perfect fit relationship. Source. Edwards and Cable (2009, p. 661). Note. Some terms and figures are added on the original figure. FPA = first principal axes.

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show the highest level of the outcome variable. Second, the FPA should be parallel with the value congruence line. When the two lines are parallel, the people on the value congruence line show the highest level of dependent variables because the FPA indicates the highest ridge on the surface. Third, the hypothetical relationship requires that the slope along the congruence line be flat, or equal 0, because people at Point A in Figure 1 should have the same level of the outcome variable as those at Point B. This implies that if two people are on the congruence line, they will have the same level of the outcome variable regardless of their locations on the congruence line.

Next, this research also used the hierarchical linear model (HLM) due to the nested data structure; individuals were nested in the six organizations. In recent years, fit empirical research (e.g., Jansen & Kristof-Brown, 2005; Zhang et al., 2012) has used the HLM to consider heterogeneous variances because ordinary least square (OLS) estimator yields a biased estimate when the model entails a heterogeneity bias from unobserved factors (Halaby, 2004). If significant improvements in terms of model fit are found by the log-likelihood ratio chi-square test, HLM should be used to take into account the nested data structure (Rabe-Hesketh & Skrondal, 2008). The log-likeli- hood ratio test showed significant improvements of model fit ( χdf =1

2 = 27.61 and p <

.01 for job satisfaction; χdf =1 2

= 17.14 and p < .01 for affective commitment), which supported the use of HLM. Accordingly, HLM, using the XTMIXED command in Stata software Version 12.1, was used to take into account the nested data structure of the six different organizations.

As suggested by Edwards and Cable (2009), finally, this research also used the bootstrapping method to calculate standard errors of point estimates with 10,000 rep- etitions. For example, we can compute a stationary point (e.g., X0 = 1.57 and Y0 = 1.36) using mathematical equations. However, the problem is that we cannot be sure of the confidence of the estimates because we use sample data, not population. Under the circumstances, researchers may want to calculate the confidence levels of the esti- mates to infer the parameter of population.

The bootstrapping approach was invented for this research purpose. The basic idea is simple. First, the approach estimates a parameter after one sample—randomly selected from sample data—is excluded, and then it again estimates a parameter after another sample is dropped out. It repeats this process many times, for example, 1,000 repetitions (Efron & Tibshirani, 1994). Then, we can calculate a standard error of the estimated parameter. In a similar vein, Preacher and Hayes (2008) suggested using the bootstrapping method to calculate the standard errors of path coefficients for formal mediation tests. Accordingly, the current study used formal mediation tests with 10,000 repetitions for more reliable results.

Results

Preliminary Analysis

Table 1 illustrates the means, standard deviations, intercorrelations, and internal reli- ability of the variables. Bivariate correlation between organizational values and values

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preferred by individuals is .47 (p < .05) for clan dimension, .51 (p < .05) for adhocracy, .51 (p < .05) for market, and .47 (p < .05) for hierarchy, which implies moderate value congruence between employees and their organizations. Vision acceptance is posi- tively correlated with job satisfaction (r = .38, p < .05) and affective commitment (r = .46, p < .05). Job satisfaction is also positively correlated with affective commit- ment (r = .63, p < .05).

Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was used to examine the distinctiveness of the concepts (i.e., four value dimensions, vision acceptance, affective commitment, and job satisfaction). Four distinctive factors (i.e., clan, adhocracy, market, and hierarchy) within individuals’ values and within organizational values theoretically should be supported by the factor analysis. However, factor analysis of the data used here did not support such a differentiation, likely because the data were collected from six different organizations. Rather, a five-factor model (i.e., organizational value, individual value, vision sharing, job satisfaction, affective commitment) was supported by the CFA, revealing a better model fit than all of the alternative models ( χdf =220

2 = 3,378.96,

comparative fit index [CFI] = 0.907, root mean square error of approximation [RMSEA] = 0.081, Tucker–Lewis index [TLI] = 0.893: The model fit was just accept- able). Hence, the four value dimensions, such as clan, adhocracy, market, and hierar- chy for individuals’ preferences, were aggregated into one dimension (i.e., individual value), and the four dimensions of organizational values were also aggregated into one dimension (i.e., organizational value).

Finally, dimension reduction techniques (Jolliffe, 2005), using the principal com- ponent method for the variables, were used to analyze the data. Centering procedure for the independent variables is strongly recommended in response surface analysis (Edwards & Parry, 1993). This procedure has three purposes: (a) It places a stationary

Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations.

M SD (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11)

Clan Now (1) 4.55 1.12 (.95) Preferred (2) 5.66 1.05 .47** (.95) Adhocracy Now (3) 4.48 1.11 .63** .36** (.96) Preferred (4) 5.54 1.03 .41** .68** .51** (.96) Market Now (5) 4.75 1.05 .74** .37** .70** .46** (.96) Preferred (6) 5.62 1.01 .42** .74** .41** .74** .51* (.95) Hierarchy Now (7) 4.66 1.06 .71** .38** .83** .43** .69** .40** (.96) Preferred (8) 5.63 1.06 .42** .74** .44** .87** .43** .74** .47** (.95) Vision Acceptance (9) 4.85 1.21 .58** .31** .56** .38** .60** .34** .57** .35** (.88) Job Satisfaction (10) 3.12 0.77 .36** .17** .34** .22** .38** .19** .36** .22** .38** (.87) Organizational

Commitment (11) 3.44 0.66 .44** .21** .40** .26** .42** .25** .40** .24** .46** .63** (.85)

Note. ns ranged from 2,261 to 2,276; internal reliabilities (Cronbach’s α) are reported along the diagonal. *p < .10. **p < .05 (two-tailed).

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point at the center of the X and Y planes; (b) it reduces the problem of multicollinear- ity; and (c) this procedure makes it easier to interpret response surfaces (Edwards, 1994). In this analysis, additional centering is not necessary because factor scores from the principal component method have means equaling zero for the variables.

Results of Polynomial Regression and Response Surface Analysis

Table 2 presents the results of polynomial regression using HLM. Log-likelihood ratio tests reported that the quadratic model revealed better model fits than the linear model in all equations ( χdf =3

2 = 13.27, p < .01, for vision acceptance; χdf =3

2 = 40.38, p < .01,

for job satisfaction; and χdf =3 2

= 12.20, p < .01, for affective commitment). As Edwards (1994; Edwards & Parry, 1993) demonstrated, the results indicate that polynomial regressions should be used to test the effect of value congruence on dependent variables such as job satisfaction and affective commitment.

Table 2. HLM Results and Condition Tests for Value Congruence Effects on the Outcomes (N = 2,176).

Variables Vision

acceptance

Job satisfaction Affective commitment

Model 1 Model 2 Model 1 Model 2

Constant −0.25* −0.13 −0.08 −0.07 −0.01 Sex (women = 1) −0.12** −0.21*** −0.18** −0.07 −0.04 Job tenure 0.08*** 0.04* 0.03 0.02 0.00 Position 0.032 0.10*** 0.10*** 0.04 0.03 Individual value (I) 0.10*** 0.06** 0.05* 0.03 0.01 Organizational value (O) 0.44*** 0.25*** 0.17*** 0.30*** 0.18*** I2 0.00 −0.04*** −0.05*** −0.03*** −0.03*** I × O 0.02** 0.06*** 0.06*** 0.03** 0.02** O2 −0.02*** −0.03*** −0.03*** −0.01 −0.01 Vision acceptance 0.20*** 0.26*** P11 (slope of FPA) 0.41 1.18 1.27 1.63 2.19 P10 (intercept of FPA) 8.48** 1.24** 0.80 3.62** 2.71 Curvature test

(incongruence line) −0.04** −0.14*** −0.14*** −0.07*** −0.06***

ax y=x (tilt) 0.54*** 0.32*** 0.21*** 0.33*** 0.19*** ax y=x2 (curvature) 0.00 −0.01 −0.02 −0.01 −0.01 SD (agency level) 0.27 0.20 0.19 0.14 0.14 SD (individual level) 0.99 1.36 1.34 1.15 1.12 Log likelihood −3,067.20 −3,754.46 −3,731.60 −3,397.08 −3,339.21

Note. Biased-correction confidence intervals of bootstrapping method were used to interpret results of P11 and P10, and linear combination tests were used for curvature test along incongruence line, tilt, and curvature. HLM = hierarchical linear model; FPA = first principal axes. *p < .10. **p < .05. ***p < .01 (two-tailed).

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The results of the polynomial regressions from the HLM and the response surface analysis are presented in the lower part of Table 2. In the models, control variables such as gender, job tenure, and job position were controlled for because those vari- ables are known to be significantly related to job satisfaction and affective commit- ment. For the control variables, first, being female significantly and positively affected job satisfaction in all models, but it was not significantly associated with affective commitment. Second, having longer job tenure positively and significantly affected job satisfaction in Model 1 in Table 2, but it was not significantly related to affective commitment. Third, having a higher job position was positively and significantly related to job satisfaction, but it was not significantly associated with affective commitment.

Edwards and Cable (2009) argued that three conditions should be met to support the presence of value congruence effect on job satisfaction and affective commitment. First, FPA should be placed on the value congruence line [I = 1 × O] in parallel. To support this, the slope of the first principal axis (i.e., P11) should be equal to one, and the intercept of FPA (i.e., P10) should be equal to zero. Second, the sum of coefficients (i.e., coefficient C2 − coefficient of C × P + coefficient of P2) should be negative to have the surface along the incongruence line [I = −1 × O] curved downward (i.e., reversely U-shaped surface). Finally, the slopes along the congruence line should be flat (i.e., zero coefficients of axy x= [i.e., tilt] and of ax y x2 = [i.e., curvature]). If the first two conditions were satisfied, we could conclude that the value congruence effect exists (Edwards & Cable, 2009; Edwards & Parry, 1993).

Hypothesis 1 expects that individuals who have higher value congruence with orga- nization are more likely to have higher job satisfaction than others. As shown in Model 1 of job satisfaction, the estimate of P11 is 1.18, and the expected parameter of P11 (i.e., “1”) is between the biased-corrected 99% confidence interval (CI), which satisfy the condition that the slope of FPA should be equal to “1.” However, the expected param- eter of P10 in Model 1 of job satisfaction rejects the null hypothesis (i.e., P10 = 0) at the 99% CI, thus not satisfying the first condition. Thus, the first condition to support value congruence effect is not satisfied. Second, the curvature test along incongruence line is negative, and it is statistically significant (the null hypothesis: β β β3 2 4 5 2 0I I O Oij ij ij ij− + ≥( * ) ). This result satisfies the second condition that the sur- face along the incongruence line should be reversely U-shaped. Third, the tilt along congruence line in Model 1 of job satisfaction is statistically significant; however, the curvature is not statistically significant. As a result, the third condition is not satisfied. Therefore, Hypothesis 1 is not accepted.

Similarly, Hypothesis 2 predicts that individuals who have higher value congruence with organizations are more likely to have higher affective commitment than others. In Model 1 of affective commitment, first, the P11, slope of FPA, is not statistically signifi- cant at the CIs, thus satisfying the condition. However, the expected parameter of P10, the intercept of FPA, rejects the null hypothesis (i.e., P10 = 0) at the biased-corrected 99% CI, not satisfying the first condition. Second, the curvature test along incongru- ence is negative and is statistically significant. It implies that the surface along the incongruence line is reversely U-shaped. Finally, the tilt along the congruence line is

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statistically significant, but the curvature along the line is not. These results are not satisfied for the condition of flat surface along the congruence line. Thus, Hypothesis 2 is not accepted.

Hypotheses 3(a) and 3(b) propose that vision acceptance mediates the relationship between value congruence and job satisfaction and affective commitment. Model 2s in Table 2 reports the results of polynomial regression results after vision acceptance was entered in the equations of Model 1. As shown in Model 2s in Table 2, both P11 and P10 are not statistically significant at the biased-corrected 99% CI, supporting the presence of value congruence effect. Furthermore, the curvature test along incongruence is neg- ative and statistically significant, which also supports the value congruence effect. Therefore, it is found that value congruence effects on job satisfaction and affective commitment exist when the vision acceptance is controlled in Model 2s.

Edwards and Cable (2009) have suggested a block model approach to test a mediat- ing effect of a variable between value congruence and an outcome variable. A block variable refers to a weighted linear composite of the variables that constitute the block (Edwards & Cable, 2009; Heise, 1972). In this research, for example, we need a path coefficient between value congruence and vision acceptance. First, we run a model to get estimates of the five quadratic terms (i.e., I, O, I2, O × I, O2) for the value congru- ence effect on vision acceptance. Next, a linear prediction based on the coefficients of the five quadratic terms is used to combine the five variables into one block variable, newly generating a variable. Then, we reestimate the model and then have a standard- ized path coefficient of the block variable that connects value congruence and vision acceptance (Edwards & Cable, 2009; Zhang et al., 2012).

For instance, a new variable using the coefficients of the five quadratic terms (i.e., I, O, I2, O × I, O2) in Model 2 of job satisfaction is generated for the value congruence effect on job satisfaction, generating a variable (e.g., JS_block) from this equation, Y I O I IO OJS = 0 05. ,+0.17 -0.05 +0.06 -0.03

2 2 for job satisfaction. Next, the model reestimates a newly generated block variable (i.e., JS_block), including other variables in the model, Y Sex JobTenure JobPosition JS BlockJS = + + + +β β β β β0 1 2 3 4* * * * _ , and then we can obtain a path coefficient ( β4 ) to connect directly value congruence effect with job satisfaction. Finally, indirect effects transmitted via vision acceptance can be computed by multiplying a path coefficient to connect value congruence with vision acceptance with a path coefficient to connect vision acceptance with job satisfaction or affective commitment.

Figure 2 presents the standardized path coefficients. As illustrated in Figure 2, first, the direct effects of value congruence on outcome variables such as job satisfaction and affective commitment are statistically significant: β = .41, p < .01, for job satisfaction, and β = .457, p < .01, for affective commitment. Second, the indirect effect of value congruence via vision acceptance on job satisfaction is 0.11 (= 0.63 × 0.18), and it was statistically significant from the “0” parameter by the result of the bootstrapping method: biased-corrected 95% CI = [.08, .15]. The indirect effect of value congruence through vision acceptance on affective commitment is 0.17 (= 0.63 × 0.27), and it was statistically significant: biased-corrected 95% CI = [.14, .21]. Therefore, we can con- clude that employees’ vision acceptance partially mediates the relationship between

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value congruence and job satisfaction and between value congruence and affective commitment (Baron & Kenny, 1986), supporting Hypotheses 3(a) and 3(b).

In addition, total effects of value congruence transmitted via vision acceptance on job satisfaction and affective commitment were calculated. Table 3 reports direct effects, indirect effects, and total effects of value congruence via vision acceptance on job satisfaction and affective commitment. Direct effects come from the coefficient estimates of Model 2 without the coefficients of vision acceptance in Table 2. Indirect effects can be calculated by multiplying the coefficient estimates of vision acceptance in the first column in Table 2 with a single coefficient of vision acceptance on outcome variables (i.e., 0.20 for job satisfaction and 0.26 for affective commitment) in Model 2 in Table 2. Finally, total effects can be calculated by combining the direct effects with the indirect effects. The combined total effects were statistically tested by the bootstrap- ping method. Figure 3 illustrates total effects of value congruence via vision acceptance on job satisfaction and affective commitment. By comparing Figures 1 and 3, we can see which preconditions for the presence of value congruence effects are not met.

Discussion

Many scholars (e.g., Hoffman, Bynum, Piccolo, & Sutton, 2011; van Knippenberg, van Knippenberg, De Cremer, & Hogg, 2004) have consistently argued that value

Figure 2. Theoretical model of the mediation effect of employees’ vision acceptance on the value congruence effects. Note. Standardized path coefficients are added in this figure. *p < .10. **p < .05. ***p < .01 (two-tailed).

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congruence is a central concept in the leadership research. Nonetheless, there has been rare research on the mechanism of the relationship between value congruence and outcomes (Edwards & Cable, 2009). The present study examined an underlying mech- anism of value congruence effects via vision acceptance on work outcomes such as job satisfaction and affective commitment. As a result, the present study found that the effects of value congruence on job satisfaction and affective commitment were not fully supported by response surface analysis. Interestingly, however, when vision acceptance was included in Model 2 in Table 2, the effects of value congruence were supported by response surface analysis. Moreover, the mediation effects of employees’ vision acceptance on the relationship between value congruence and outcomes were supported by formal mediation tests via the bootstrapping method. To conclude, the research demonstrates that value congruence is partially connected with job satisfac- tion and organizational commitment via employees’ vision acceptance.

Hypotheses 1 and 2, which expected that value congruence directly affects job sat- isfaction and organizational commitment, were rejected by response surface analysis. These findings may contrast with those of prior empirical studies (Hoffman et al., 2011; Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). However, the contradictory findings may be a result of different measurements (i.e., perceived fit vs. actual fit assessment), although actual fit measures are highly recommended to reduce measurement errors (Edwards, 1994). Rather, the results may support the findings of Kalliath and colleagues’ (1999), who failed to find value congruence effects on job satisfaction and organizational commit- ment when using actual fit measures.

Second, the present study found a partially mediating role of employees’ vision acceptance between value congruence and employees’ job attitudes. This finding may indicate that employees who perceive higher value congruence with their organization

Table 3. Total Effects of Value Congruence on Outcome Variables (N = 2,176).

Variables

Job satisfaction Affective commitment

Direct effects

Indirect effects

Total effects

Direct effects

Indirect effects

Total effects

Constant −0.08 −0.05** −0.13 −0.01 −0.07*** −0.07 Sex −0.18** −0.02** −0.210** −0.04 −0.03** −0.07 Job tenure 0.03 0.02*** 0.04* 0.00 0.02*** 0.02 Job position 0.10*** 0.01 0.10*** 0.03 0.01 0.03 I 0.05* 0.02*** 0.07** 0.01 0.03*** 0.03 O 0.17*** 0.09*** 0.25*** 0.18*** 0.12*** 0.30*** I2 −0.05*** 0.00 −0.05*** −0.03*** 0.00 −0.03** I × O 0.06*** 0.00 0.06*** 0.02** 0.01* 0.03* O2 −0.03*** −0.01*** −0.03*** −0.01 −0.01*** −0.01

Note. Biased-correction confidence interval was used to interpret statistical significances of indirect effects and total effects. I = Individual Value; O = Organizational Value. *p < .10. **p < .05. ***p < .01 (two-tailed).

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Figure 3. Total effects of value congruence via vision acceptance on job satisfaction and affective commitment.

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are more likely to accept organizational visions, which are in turn positively related to positive job attitudes that lead to higher job satisfaction and organizational commit- ment (Posner & Schmidt, 1993).

Theoretical and Practical Implications

The current study provides theoretical insights for leadership literature. For instance, transformational leadership theory argues that effective leaders articulate a vision that highlights the way in which collective goals are congruent with subordinates’ values, causing the subordinates to accept organizational goals as their own and devote extra effort toward the given goals and accomplishments (Avolio, Zhu, Koh, & Bhatia, 2004; Bass & Riggio, 2006; Shamir, House, & Arthur, 1993). The theoretical argu- ment seems to be upheld by the research finding that value congruence partially affects subordinates’ job attitudes, such as job satisfaction and affective commitment, via the process of vision acceptance. This research finding leads to a topic for a new study: How leaders are able to make followers accept their visions along with person–orga- nization value congruence.

The current study also provides practical implications for managers in public orga- nizations. First, the direct relationships between congruence and the outcomes were stronger than the mediating effects of vision acceptance on the relationship. Thus, this finding implies that job interviewers need to assess whether job applicants’ beliefs, values, or characteristics are compatible with the organizational culture via job-based structured interviews (Cable & Judge, 1996). Second, line managers must first buy into organizational values and goals to encourage subordinates to accept the values or goals given by the top leader. If a manager’s values and those of his or her organization are not aligned, subordinates may receive mixed messages, and as a result, they can become confused about their roles and missions. Thus, it is essential that organizations train managers to buy into organizational visions or goals so that they are “on the same page” as their organizations (Hoffman et al., 2011). Finally, a recent study demon- strated that when an in-group identity between leaders and followers is shared, follow- ers easily perceive a leader’s statement as inspirational (Molenberghs, Prochilo, Steffens, Zacher, & Haslam, 2015). This finding indicates that managers should have a strong group identity with their members—nurtured through open and frequent com- munication, which leads to strong group membership—and then followers may easily feel value congruence with leaders’ articulated visions or goals.

Limitations and Strengths

This study also was subject to several limitations that should be acknowledged. First, the findings may have the external validity issue because the samples were public employees in South Korea. People have different levels of national culture in terms of power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism, and masculinity (Hofstede, 1980). Furthermore, the samples in this study were public employees in the central government. It is generally believed that private- and public-sector employees have

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different job characteristics and work environments (Rainey, 2009; Rainey & Bozeman, 2000). For example, public employees have less decision-making autonomy and flex- ibility because of elaborate institutional constraints and external political influences (Rainey, 2009). Accordingly, we should be careful in the generalization of these research findings to employees in other countries, as well as in private organizations.

Second, as noted previously, the data were collected immediately after multiple organizations were merged into the six organizations surveyed. Employees involved in a reorganization process (e.g., merging of several organizations into one organization) feel a great deal of uncertainty and group identity change, and the process has a huge impact on cultural change in the newly merged organization (Kavanagh & Ashkanasy, 2006). As a result, employees in the newly merged organizations may have felt that the organizational culture was significantly different from the organizational culture before the merger, which may have led to high value incongruence of the survey respondents. Thus, the effect of the reorganizations during data collection may have significantly affected the research results.

Third, the concept of vision has a multi-dimensional structure (Larwood, Falbe, Kriger, & Miesing, 1995). For example, it has two distinctive sub-concepts: visioning process and its contents. The visioning process includes aspects such as development, articulation, communication, and implementation, whereas contents refer to vision statements (Larwood et al., 1995; Nanus, 1992; Westley & Mintzberg, 1989). However, this research measured only one dimension of employees’ vision acceptance, which is conceptually operationalized as to how they understand and agree with their organiza- tional vision. It is possible that visioning process or contents satisfaction might be associated more with value congruence effects than vision acceptance. Accordingly, it is recommended for researchers to test value congruence effects on the satisfaction on visioning procedure and vision contents satisfaction with more details in the future.

Finally, the study relied on self-report measures, which is susceptible to common method bias (Campbell & Fiske, 1959). The measurements from a common method may inflate correlations among the variables. Because of the concern, data collection from multi-sources is strongly recommended. In the future, thus, value congruence researchers should collect the data from various sources such as interview method. However, the research findings may less suffer from the bias than it is expected. First, there have been empirical studies to support that common method bias may be trivial (Doty & Glick, 1998; Spector, 1987). Second, competing values frame that this study used may reduce the bias resulted from social desirability (Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Lee, & Podsakoff, 2003). Third, the result of confirmatory factor analysis supported the reliability of the measurements. Fourth, managers and employees from six differ- ent organizations participated in the survey, securing the multi-sources of the survey respondents, as Edwards and Cable (2009) suggested.

The limitations of this study are countered by important strengths. First, value sets were measured by structured instruments of a competing value model, developed by Cameron and Quinn (2006). Second, value congruence was assessed by indirect fit measurement (i.e., actual fit measurement) to secure measurement accuracy, because perceived fit measurement tends to conflate the effects of other types of fit such as job

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fit or team fit, creating a biased estimation of their independent effects (Edwards, 1996; Edwards & van Harrison, 1993). Third, this research has methodological strengths to assess value congruence effects because it used various methodological techniques, such as polynomial regressions using HLM, response surface analysis, the block model approach, and formal mediation statistical tests by the bootstrapping method. Finally, survey data were collected from six organizations, thus increasing external validity and generalizability of the findings.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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Author Biography

Geunpil Ryu, PhD, is the senior consultant at the POSCO Group University. He earned his PhD degree in public administration at the State University of New York at Albany. His research focuses on public employees’ well-being, person–organization fit, and work motivation of pub- lic employees