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Chapter One— The Politics of Public Budgets
Public Budgets describe what governments do by listing how governments spend money. A budget links tasks to be performed with the amount of resources
necessary to accomplish those tasks, ensuring that money will be available to wage war, provide housing, or maintain streets. Budgets limit expenditures to the
revenues available, to ensure balance and prevent overspending. Most of the work in drawing up a budget is technical, estimating how much it will cost to feed a
thousand shutins with a MealsonWheels program or how much revenue will be produced from a 1 percent tax on retail sales. But public budgets are not merely
technical managerial documents; they are also intrinsically and irreducibly political.
• Budgets reflect choices about what government will and will not do. They reflect general public consensus about what kinds of services governments should provide
and what citizens are entitled to as members of society. Should government provide services that the private sector could provide, such as water, electricity,
transportation, and housing? Do all citizens have a guarantee of health care, regardless of ability to pay? Are all insured against hunger? Are they entitled to some kind
of housing?
• Budgets reflect priorities—between police and flood control, day care and defense, the Northeast and the Southwest. The budget process mediates between groups
and individuals who want different things from government and determines who gets what. These decisions may influence whether the poor get job training or the
police get riot training, both as a response to an increased number of unemployed.
• Budgets reflect the relative proportion of decisions made for local and constituency purposes, and for efficiency, effectiveness, and broader public goals. Budgets
reflect the degree of importance legislators put on
C o p y r i g h t 2 0 0 0 . C h a t h a m H o u s e P u b l i s h i n g .
A l l r i g h t s r e s e r v e d . M a y n o t b e r e p r o d u c e d i n a n y f o r m w i t h o u t p e r m i s s i o n f r o m t h e p u b l i s h e r , e x c e p t f a i r
u s e s p e r m i t t e d u n d e r U . S . o r a p p l i c a b l e c o p y r i g h t l a w .
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satisfying their constituents and the legislators' willingness to listen to interestgroup demands. For example, the Defense Department may decide to spend more money
to keep a military base open because the local economy depends on it and to spend less money to improve combat readiness.
• Budgets provide a powerful tool of accountability to citizens who want to know how the government is spending their money and if government has generally
followed their preferences. Budgeting links citizen preferences and governmental outcomes.
• Budgets reflect citizens' preferences for different forms of taxation and different levels of taxation, as well as the ability of specific groups of taxpayers to shift tax
burdens to others. The budget reflects the degree to which the government redistributes wealth upward or downward through the tax system.
• At the national level, the budget influences the economy, so fiscal policy affects the level of employment—how many people are out of work at any time.
• Budgets reflect the relative power of different individuals and organizations to influence budget outcomes. Budgetary decision making provides a picture of the
relative power of budget actors within and between branches of government, as well as the importance of citizens in general and specific interest groups.
In all these ways, public budgeting is political. But budgeting is not typical of other political processes and hence one example among many. It is both an important and
a unique arena of politics. It is important because of the specific policy issues reflected in the budget: the scope of government, the distribution of wealth, the openness
of government to interest groups, and the accountability of government to the public at large. It is unique because these decisions have to take place in the context of
budgeting, with its need for balance, its openness to the environment, and its requirements for timely decisions so that government can carry on without interruption.
Public budgets clearly have political implications, but what does it mean to say that key political decisions are made in the context of budgeting? The answer has
several parts. First, what is budgeting? Second, what is public budgeting, as opposed to individual or family budgeting or the budgeting of private organizations? Third,
what does political mean in the context of public budgeting?
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What Is Budgeting?
The essence of budgeting is that it allocates scarce resources and hence implies choice between potential objects of expenditure. Budgeting implies balance, and it
requires some kind of decisionmaking process.
Making Budgetary Choices
All budgeting, whether public or private, individual or organizational, involves choices between possible expenditures. Since no one has unlimited resources, people
budget all the time. A child makes a budget (a plan for spending, balancing revenues and expenditures) when she decides to spend money on a marshmallow rabbit
rather than a chocolate one, assuming she has money enough for only one rabbit. The air force may choose between two different airplanes to replace current
bombers. These examples illustrate the simplest form of budgeting because they involve only one actor, one resource, one time, and two straightforward and
comparable choices.
Normally, budgeting does not compare only two reasonably similar items. There may be a nearly unlimited number of choices. Budgeting usually limits the options to
consider by grouping together similar things that can be reasonably compared. When I go to the supermarket, I do not compare all the possible things I could buy, not
only because I cannot absorb that number of comparisons, but because the comparisons would be meaningless and a waste of time. I do not go to the supermarket
and decide to get either a turkey or a bottle of soda pop. I compare main dishes with main dishes, beverages with beverages, desserts with desserts. Then I have a
common denominator for comparison. For example, I may look at the main course and ask about the amount of protein for the dollar. I may compare the desserts in
terms of the amount of cholesterol or the calories.
There is a tendency, then, to make comparisons within categories where the comparison is meaningful. This is as true for governmental budgeting as it is for shoppers.
For example, weapons might be compared with weapons or automobiles with automobiles. They could be compared in terms of speed, reliability, and availability of
spare parts, and the one that did the most of what you wanted it to do at the least cost would be the best choice. As long as there is agreement on the goals to be
achieved, the choice should be straightforward.
Sometimes, budgeting requires comparison of different, and seemingly incomparable, things. If I do not have enough money to buy a whole balanced meal, I may have
to make choices between main dishes and desserts. How do I compare the satisfaction of a sweet tooth to the nourishment of turkey? Or, in the public sector, how do
I compare the benefits of providing shelters for
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the homeless with buying more helicopters for the navy? I may then move to more general comparisons, such as how clearly were the requests made and the benefits
spelled out; who got the benefits last time and whose turn is it this time; are there any specific contingencies that make one choice more likely than the other? For
example, will we be embarrassed to show our treatment of the homeless in front of a visiting dignitary? Or, are disarmament negotiations coming up in which we need
to display strength or make a symbolic gesture of restraint? Comparing dissimilar items may require a list of priorities. It may be possible to do two or more important
things if they are sequenced properly.
Budgeting often allocates money, but it can allocate any scarce resource, for example, time. A student may choose between studying for an exam and playing softball
and drinking beer afterward. In this example, it is time that is at a premium, not money. Or it could be medical skills that are in short supply, or expensive equipment,
or apartment space, or water.
Government programs often involve a choice of resources and sometimes involve combinations of resources, each of which has different characteristics. For example,
some federal farm programs involve direct cash payments plus loans at belowmarket interest rates, and welfare programs often involve dollar payments plus food
stamps, which allow recipients to pay less for food. Federal budgets often assign agencies money, personnel, and sometimes borrowing authority, three different kinds
of resources.
Balancing and Borrowing
Budgets have to balance. A plan for expenditures that pays no attention to ensuring that revenues cover expenditures is not a budget. That may sound odd in view of
historically huge federal deficits, but a budget may technically be balanced by borrowing. Balance means only that outgo is matched or exceeded by income. The
borrowing has to be paid off. Borrowing means spending more now and paying more in the future in order to maintain balance. It is a balance over time.
To illustrate the nature of budget balance, consider me as shopper again. Suppose I spend all my weekly shopping money before I buy my dessert. I have the option
of treating my dollar limit as if it were more flexible, by adding the dimension of time. I can buy the dessert and everything else in the basket, going over my budget,
and then eat less at the end of the month. Or I can pay the bill with a credit card, assuming I will have more money in the future with which to pay off the bill when it
comes due. The possibility of borrowing against the future is part of most budget choices.
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The following brief example illustrates that time is an important dimension of budgeting, whether one is considering formal borrowing or adopting projects now and
committing future revenues to pay for them. In the example, a lobbyist for the university is speaking about funding alternatives likely to be used to pay for a project
favored by the Board of Higher Education.
Lobbyist: The Board of Higher Education has an initiative that they would like to put forth during the veto session for $2 million for planning funds for this University Center in
Lake County. Whether or not they will be successful in putting that forward will depend on if there is a supplemental budget bill for capital items, and if they can get their issue
into that [supplemental] budget, which is tricky. I think that if there is no budget opportunity [through the supplemental], they will try to move forward on the Lake County issue
[anyway] … they are very committed to it. There are $2 million of planning funds. I would expect that they will fund the planning funds and/or the $10 million construction funds
our of next year's fiscal year 2000 higher education capital list. If they do not get the planning money [out of this year's supplementals], then they will probably just fund the
planning money out of next year's budget and take the other $8 million out the following year. But they are very, very committed to moving forward on this. 1
Process
Budgeting cannot proceed without some kind of decision process. The process determines who will have a say and at what point in the decision making, and frames
the decisions that have to be made. Budget process typically involves estimates of revenues and limits on expenditures, structures the comparisons among alternatives,
and regulates the flow of decisions to see that they are made in proper order and in a timely way.
Back to my shopping example: If I shop for the main course first, and spend more money than I intended on it because I found some fresh fish, there will be less
money left for purchasing the dessert. Hence, unless I set a firm limit on the amount of money to spend for each segment of the meal, the order in which I do the
purchasing counts. Of course, if I get to the end of my shopping and do not have enough money left for dessert, I can put back some of the items already in the cart
and squeeze out enough money for dessert.
Governmental budgeting is also concerned with procedures for managing tradeoffs between large categories of spending. Budgeters may determine the
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relative importance of each category first, attaching a dollar level in proportion to the assigned importance, or they may allow purchasing in each area to go on
independently, later reworking the choices until the balance between the parts is acceptable.
The order of decisions is important in another sense. I can determine how much money I am likely to have first and then set that as an absolute limit on expenditures,
or I can determine what I must have, what I wish to have, and what I need to set aside for emergencies and then go out and try to find enough money to cover some
or all of those expenditures. Especially in emergencies, such as accidents or other health emergencies, people are likely to obligate the money first and worry about
where it will come from later. Governmental budgeting, too, may concentrate first on revenues and later on expenditures, or first on expenditures and later on income.
Like individuals or families, during emergencies such as floods or hurricanes or wars, governments will commit the expenditures first and worry about where the money
will come from later.
Governmental Budgeting
Public budgeting shares many of the characteristics of budgeting in general but differs from personal and business budgeting in some key ways.
1. Public budgeting is characterized by a variety of budgetary actors who have different priorities and different levels of power over budgetary outcomes. In family and
business budgeting there may be only one key actor or a few, and they may have similar views of what they want the budget to achieve.
2. In governmental budgeting, elected officials spend citizens' money, not their own. Generally speaking, individuals and smallbusiness owners spend their own, not
someone else's money. Public officials can force citizens to spend their money on expenditures they do not want, but citizens can vote the politicians out of office.
Consequently, public officials try not to stray too far from what they think the public wants. Because of the variety of budgetary actors and demands, however, there is
no single set of demands to follow. To create enough coherence to guide decisions, budget processes in the public sector involve the negotiation of consent among
representatives of competing groups and interests.
3. Because elected officials make spending decisions for citizens, accountability is an important part of public budgeting. The budget document
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helps explain to the public how its money was spent. That document is necessarily public, unlike business budgets, and may be the focus of public controversy if
citizens do not like what they see or do not fully understand it.
4. Public budgets are planned well in advance of the beginning of the fiscal year and are intended to last a whole year or even two years. Many changes can occur
over that period of time, in the economy, in public opinion, in political coalitions, in the weather. Public budgets need to be able to respond to such pressures during
the year without major policy changes. If the deals that were necessary to prepare the budget come undone during budget implementation, budget actors will lose their
trust in the process. Privatesector budgets are more flexible: they can be remade from week to week or month to month, and policy changes can be adopted at any
time. Privatesector budgets are not designed to last unchanged for eighteen months or more. Moreover, privatesector budgets are less open to pressures from the
outside, from public opinion or frequent changes in elected officials.
5. Public budgets are incredibly constrained compared to the private sector. There are often rules about the purposes for which revenue can be spent and the time
frame in which it can be spent, as well as requirements for balance and limits on borrowing. Capital projects may require public referenda for approval, and taxation
growth may be limited to inflation unless citizens approve higher rates in a referendum. Other levels of government may impose spending requirements or limit the
permitted forms of taxation. Past agreements may control spending levels or result in tax sharing with other jurisdictions. Courts may play a role in budgeting, telling
jurisdictions what they may tax or how their budget process may or may not change. Rather than one bottom line, which is the business model, government agencies
may have multiple bottom lines, each of which must balance. Many elements of public budgeting are beyond the control of those who draw up the budget.
The following example, demonstrating that budgeting has a political dimension, should give the reader a feel for governmental budgeting. Any given budget is likely to
attract opponents as well as supporters, because no matter how many interests are served by a budget, some claimants will feel they did not get all they wanted or had
in a previous budget. Detractors often make public charges against the budget, and budgeters, equally publicly, defend it.
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Minicase: City Manager Replies to Scathing Budget Critique
DeKalb, Illinois, has a councilmanager from of government with an active, policy
oritented mayor. One mayor, who favored business development and expansion,
sometimes at the expense of the existing residents and neighborhoods, was recently
defeated by a candidate who advocated balance between new development and existng
neighborhoods. Not long after the new mayor and a new manager were in place, the
local newspaper ran an editorial excoriating the new manager for his fiscal practies. The
editorial was filled with innuendo, exaggeration, and outright mistakes. The new manager
responded with a letter to the editor.
The newspaper's criticism of the manaer's financial management was a thinly disguised
effort to discriet the new administration and its policies of managed growth. The editorial
reflected loyalty to the former mayor and longing for the ''good old days." It argued that
taxes and fees were growing, the city was trying to build too large a fund balance
(demonstratingunnecessary taxation), and it was unclear where the increased revenues
were going other than into the fund balance. Further, the editorial charged that the former
administration had run a tight ship and that the city was in good financial shape when
thenew mayor took over, but now staff were resigning and were not being replaced,
reportedly to save money. The implication was that the new manager and mayor were
screwing things up.
The manager, in his reply, pointed out that the previous manager's instructions to the
department heads acknowledgeed that there was too little reserve in the fund balance to
provide the necessary margin of safety and that spending custs would have to be made
during the year to improve the situation. The present manager alsonoted that before he
came on count mall that later canceled out. The hiring had been done in the middle of the
year, with ballooning costs for the first full year of the new staff. In other words, the
manager had inhertied a situation that needed to be fixed. The city finances had not been
so fine when he began his term.
As for the revenue increases, the property taxes were near longterm averages, but had
had to be increased over recent lows because of state mandated costs, over which the
city had absolutely not control. The yield from sales taxes had indeed gone up, but the
increases were obligated to the Tax Increment Financing district, a district formed a
number of years earlier to fund economic development, and to other units of government
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through existing intergovernmental agreements. The actual amount of sales taxes going
into the general fund was decreasing, not increasing, so there was no puzzle about where
the increased reveune was going. Finally, the editorial had correctly pointed out that the
city had increased fees levied on developers to pay the present and future costs of
growth. The administrations's goal was for expansion and grwoth to fund itself, rather
than be subsidized by the existing community residents. The manager argued that such
policies were common, not only in other cities, but in the neighboring cities with which
DeKalb was competing. This fee policy symbolized the policy difference between the
current and previous administration.
This story of charges against and defenses of municipal budgeting practices in DeKalb, Illinois, illustrates a number of themes in public budgeting. First, the venue of
the debate was the local newspaper. The issues were complex and the newspaper was trying to explain them to the public, but it was not being an impartial observer
or educator. The newspaper editor was being given stories that sounded realistic and were supported by some evidence in the budget, but he did not dig deeper. The
result was the kind of muffled communication that is common in public budgeting.
Public officials often think they are giving clear signals on the budget and are puzzled by citizen responses. The budget can be harder to explain than elected officials
imagine. Public budgeting is complex and rulebound, while political dialogue is simple, simplifying, and sometimes biased. Accountability does not happen by itself;
budgets do not wade into crowds and draw around them circles of admiring readers. Budgets have to be interpreted, and someone has to tell a good story to get
readers involved. This is where newspapers come in, but reporters are not necessarily knowledgeable, and newspapers are not necessarily neutral.
Another theme that emerged from the minicase was that the former mayor and manager were still playing political roles, albeit indirect ones. Nearly all new
administrations have to run against their predecessors. They come into office and find a mess and try to clean it up. If they get started without a process of reckoning,
they are likely to be blamed for the financial mistakes of their predecessors, who, as in this case, may have run down fund balances and put off expenditures until the
next administration. The inherited budget may be boobytrapped in a variety of ways, precisely because time is an element in budgeting and expenditures can be put off
and revenue moved up.
While prior administrations may still be around to find fault, hoping to return to office, other potential electoral rivals can play a similar role, picking
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apart the budget, making normal decisions look odd, emphasizing projects that have not been completed or that came in over estimated costs. Taxpayers' groups may
also continually pick apart the budget in highly public situations, from their own somewhat narrow point of view. Politics thus infiltrates budgeting whenever the budget
goes public. Budgeteers have to be continually alert to the political implications of their actions and the implications of politics for their actions. Keeping governmental
finances afloat can be difficult when others are intentionally rocking the boat. There can be great temptation to keep parts of the budget obscure in order to prevent
massive criticism from political opponents.
The attack and defense of the DeKalb budget made clear that there is policy in the budget, not just technical decisions about the timing of debt or the level of the
property tax rate. The editorial was wrong in some of its charges, but it was right in noting the increase in fees for developers. These fees were not just a way of
balancing the budget but reflected a judgment about who should pay for government and who should benefit from public spending. In this case, the former mayor had
implemented a policy whereby all residents paid for growth. He claimed that everyone benefited, but it seemed likely that developers and new businesses benefited
disproportionately compared to existing residents and businesses. In many cities, growth is highly subsidized, often by citizens who do not benefit directly from growth
and who might prefer that additional growth not take place. In DeKalb, the citizens were asked in a political campaign precisely whether they wanted to continue to
subsidize growth, and they said no, voting to change mayors to change the existing policy. If elected officials drift too far in their policies from what the citizens wish,
they are likely to be turned out of office at the next opportunity.
The manager's letter to the editor made clear that public budgeting is constrained—by other levels of government (state mandates), by prior agreements (the Tax
Increment District and intergovernmental agreements), and by competition with surrounding jurisdictions. The manager defended his charging fees for developers not
only by noting the condition of the general fund, but also by noting that surrounding towns were doing the same thing, so the community would not lose development
by charging a fee.
The overall point of the minicase is that public officials need not only to do the right thing for the community and follow the public will, as best they understand what
that is, but also to figure out a way to explain and justify their choices. They are engaged in a dialogue in which there are always other arguments, such as "we have to
subsidize business because other governments are doing it" or "if we raise property taxes we will lose businesses." Public officials should not ignore these arguments
because there are many in the community who believe them, and their advocates represent legitimate interests. Equally important, engaging in this
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dialogue is a way of getting the public involved and getting across information about budgetary decisions in a way that people can understand.
In sum, public budgeting is necessarily and legitimately different from personal and business budgeting. These differences help shape the politics of public budgeting.
A Variety of Actors
The first characteristic of public budgeting was the variety of actors involved in the budget and their frequently clashing motivations and goals. On a regular basis,
bureau chiefs, executive budget officers, and chief executives are involved in the budget process, as are legislators, both on committees and as a whole group. Interest
groups may be involved at intervals, sometimes for relatively long stretches of time, sometimes briefly. Sometimes citizens play a direct or indirect role in the budget
process. Courts may play a role in budgets at any level of government at unpredictable intervals. When they do play a role in budgetary decisions, what are these
actors trying to achieve?
Bureau Chiefs. Many students of budgeting assume that agency heads always want to expand their agencies, that their demands are almost limitless, and that it is up
to other budget actors to curtail and limit their demands. The reasons given for that desire for expansion include prestige, more subordinates, more space, larger desks,
more secretaries, and not incidentally, more salary. The argument presumes that agency heads judge their bureaucratic skills in terms of the satisfaction of their budget
requests. Successful bureaucrats bring back the budget. Agency expansion is the measure of success.
Recent research has suggested that while some bureaucrats may be motivated by salaries, many feel that one of their major rewards is the opportunity to do good for
people—to house the homeless, feed the hungry, find jobs for the unemployed, and send out checks to the disabled. 2 For these bureaucrats, efforts to expand agency
budgets are the result of their belief in the programs they work for.
Recent research has also suggested that the bureaucracy has become more professional, which introduces the possibility of another motivation, the desire to do a good
job, to do it right, to put in the best machinery that exists or build the biggest, toughest engineering project or the most complicated weapons.
The generalization that bureaucrats always press for budget increases appears to be too strong. Some agencies are much more aggressive in pushing for growth than
others. Some are downright moribund. Sometimes agency heads refuse to expand when given the opportunity,3 suggesting there are some countervailing values to
growth. One of these countervailing values is agency autonomy. Admin
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istrators may prefer to maintain autonomy rather than increase the budget if it comes down to a choice between the two. A second countervailing value ro growth is
professionalism, the desire to get the job done, and do it quickly and right. Administrators generally prefer to hire employees who have the ability to get the job done,
plus a little, a spare amount of intelligence, motivation, and energy just in case they need to get some extra work done or do it fast in response to a political request. 4
Administrators may refuse to add employees if the proposed employees do not add to the agency's capacity to get things done. A third countervailing value is program
loyalty. Expansion may be seen as undesirable if the new mission swamps the existing mission, if it appears contradictory to the existing mission, or if the program
requires more money to carry out than is provided, forcing the agency to spend money designated for existing programs on new ones or do a poor job.
A fourth countervailing value is belief in the chain of command. Many, if not all, bureaucrats believe that their role is to carry out the policies of the chief executive and
the legislature. If those policies mean cutting back budgets, agency heads cut back the agencies. Agency heads may be appointed precisely because they are willing to
make cuts in their agencies.5
Bureaucrats, then, do not always try to expand their agencies' budgets. They have other, competing goals, which sometimes dominate. Also, their achievements can be
measured by other than expanded budgets. They may go for some specific items in the budget without raising totals, or may try for changes in the wording of
legislation. They may strive to get a statutory basis for the agency and security of funding. They may take as a goal providing more efficient and effective service, rather
than expanded or more expensive service.
The Executive Budget Office. The traditional role of the budget office has been to scrutinize requests coming up from the agencies, to find waste and eliminate it,
and to discourage most requests for new money. The executive budget office has been perceived as the naysayer, the protector of the public purse. Most staff
members in the budget office are very conscious of the need to balance the budget, to avoid deficits, and to manage cash flow so that there is money on hand to pay
bills. Hence they tend to be skeptical of requests for new money.
In recent years, however, there has been a change in the role of budget office. At the national level under President Ronald Reagan, budgeting became much more
topdown, with the director of the Office of Management and Budget (OMB) proposing specific cuts and negotiating them directly with Congress, without much
scrutiny of requests coming up from departments or bureaus. OMB became more involved in trying to accomplish the policy goals of the president through the
budget.6 At state levels, too, there has been an evolution of budget staff from more technical to more political and more policyrelated
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goals. When the governor is looking for new spending proposals, these may come from the budget office.
Chief Executive Officers. The role of chief executive officers (the mayor or city manager, the governor, the president) is highly variable, and hence these executives'
goals in the budget process cannot be predicted without knowledge of the individuals. Some chief executives have been expansive, proposing new programs; others
have been economy minded, cutting back proposals generated by the legislatures. Some have been efficiency oriented, reorganizing staffs and trying to maintain
service levels without increases in taxes or expenditures.
Legislators. Legislators have sometimes been described as always trying to increase expenditures. 7 Their motivation is viewed as getting reelected, which depends
on their ability to provide constituents services and deliver "pork"—jobs and capital projects—to their districts. Norms of reciprocity magnify the effects of these
spending demands because legislators are reluctant to cut others' pork lest their own be cut in return. At the city level, a council member described this norm of
reciprocity, "There is an unwritten rule that if something is in a councilman's district, we'll go along and scratch each other's back."8
For some legislators, however, getting reelected is not a high priority. They view elected office as a service they perform for the community rather than a career, and
while they may be responsive to constituents' needs, they are simply not motivated to start new projects or give public employees a raise in order to get reelected.
Also, some legislators feel secure about the possibility of reelection and hence have no urgent need to deliver pork in order to increase their chances of reelection.9
Even assuming the motivation to get reelected, holding down taxes may be as important to reelection as spending on programs and projects. The consequence of tax
reduction is usually curtailed expenditures. Legislators are bound to try to balance the budget, which puts some constraints on the desire to spend.
The tendency to provide pork is real, but there are counterbalancing factors. Some legislators are more immune to pressures from constituents because they are secure
electorally, and legislators can organize themselves in such a way as to insulate themselves somewhat from these pressures. They can, for example, select more
electorally secure representatives for key positions on appropriations committees; they can separate committees that deal extensively with interest groups from those
that deal with expenditures; they can set up buffer groups to deal with interest groups; they can structure the budget process so that revenue limits precede and guide
spending proposals.
Moreover, legislators have interests other than providing pork. Some legislators are deeply concerned about solving social problems, designing and funding defense
and foreign aid systems, and monitoring the executive branch. The
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proportion of federal budget spent on porktype projects has declined in recent years, despite reforms in Congress that decentralized control and allowed pressure for
pork to increase. 10 "Congressmen are not singleminded seekers of local benefits, struggling feverishly to win every last dollar for their districts. However important
the quest for local benefits may be, it is always tempered by other competing concerns."11 The pull for local benefits depends on the program. Some, like water
projects, are oriented to local payoffs; others, like entitlement programs for large numbers of people, are nor. Programs with local pull account for smaller and smaller
proportions of the budget12 and the trend has accelerated since 1978.13
Interest Groups. Interest groups, too, have often been singled out as the driving force behind budget increases. They are said to want more benefits for their
members and to be undeterred by concerns for overall budget balance or the negative effects of tax increases. Moreover, their power has been depicted as great.
Wellfunded interest groups reportedly wine and dine legislators and provide campaign funding for candidates who agree with their positions.
There is some truth to this picture, but it is oversimplified. Interest groups have other policy goals besides budget levels. In fact, most probably deal with the budget
only when a crisis occurs, such as a threat to funding levels. Because they can be counted on to come to the defense of a threatened program, they reduce the
flexibility of budget decision makers, who find it difficult to cut programs with strong interestgroup backing. But many areas of the budget do not have strong
interestgroup backing. For example, foreign aid programs have few domestic constituencies. Agencies may even have negative constituencies, that is, interest groups
that want to reduce their funding and terminate their programs. The American Medical Association sought for years to eliminate the Health Planning Program. Often
when there are interest groups, there are many rather than one, and these interest groups may have conflicting styles or conflicting goals, canceling one another out or
absorbing energy in battles among themselves. A coalition of interest groups representing broad geographic areas and a variety of constituencies is likely to be more
effective at lobbying. Hence coalitions may form, but individual members of the coalition may not go along with measures supported by others, so the range of items
lobbied for as a unified group may be narrow. Extensive negotiations and continual efforts are required to get two or more independent groups together for a lobbying
effort, and the arrangement can then fall apart. In short, interest groups are often interested in maintaining their autonomy.
Individuals. Individuals seldom have a direct role in the budget process, but they often have an indirect role. They may vote on referenda to limit revenues, forbid
some forms of taxation, or require budgetary balance. They voice their
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opinions also in public opinion polls, and more informally by calling or writing their elected representatives and giving their opinions. Their knowledge of the budget is
not usually detailed, but their feelings about the acceptability of taxation are an important part of the constraints of public budgeting. Their preferences for less visible
taxes and for taxes earmarked for specific approved expenditures have been an important factor in public budgeting.
The Courts. Another budget actor that plays an intermittent role in determining expenditures is the courts. 14 The courts get involved when other actors, often interest
groups, bring a case against the government. Suits that affect the budget may involve service levels or the legality of particular forms of taxation. If a particular tax is
judged unconstitutional, the result is usually lost revenues. If there are suits concerning levels of service, governments may be forced to spend more money on that
service. There can also be damage suits against governments that affect expenditures. These suits are usually settled without regard to the government agencies' ability
to pay. The result may be forced cuts in other areas of the budget, tax increases, or even bankruptcy. When the courts get involved, they may determine budget
priorities. They introduce a kind of rigidity into the budget that says do this, or pay this, first.
Typical areas in which courts have gotten involved and mandated expenditures for state and local governments are prison overcrowding (declared cruel and unusual
punishment) and deinstitutionalization of mentally ill and mentally handicapped patients. In each case, the rights of the institutionalized population required more services
or more space, often involving expenditures of additional funds. From the perspective of the courts, the priority of rights outweighs immediate concerns for budget
balances, autonomy of governmental units, and local priorities.
These various actors not only have different and potentially clashing budgetary goals, but they typically have different levels of power. Thus, at times, the budget office
may completely dominate the agencies; at times, Congress may differ from the president on budgetary policy and pass its own preferences. The courts may preempt
the decision making of the executive and the legislature. Some particular interest groups may always be able to get tax breaks for themselves. The combination of
different preferences and different levels of power has to be orchestrated by the budget process in such a way that agreement is reached, and the players stay in the
game, continuing to abide by the rules. If some actors feel too powerless over the budget, they may cease to participate or become obstructionist, blocking any
agreements or imposing rigid, nonnegotiable solutions. Why participate in negotiations and discussions if the decision will go against you regardless of what you do? If
some actors lose on important
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issues, they may try to influence budget implementation to favor themselves. Or the actors with less budget power may try to change the budget process so that they
have a better chance of influencing the outcomes.
Separation of Payer and Decider
One of the major characteristics of public budgeting is that those who pay the bills are not the ones who make the decisions on how the money is to be spent. The
possibility exists that elected officials will spend the money differently than taxpayers wish. In some cities in the later 1800s, the problem was solved by having
taxpayer groups elect their own representatives, in some cases requiring property ownership and taxpaying history to qualify as a candidate. 15 Nearly all local
taxation was based on property taxes at that time. Local government, under the control of these taxpayers, spent money on projects that would benefit them, such as
markets, ports, roads, and bridges. When the economy turned sour, and property owners could not afford to pay for these projects, they stopped paying for them.16
Over the years, however, as more poor folk moved into the cities and voted, with the encouragement of political machines that paid for votes with employment
opportunities, the difference between what the wealthy wished to spend tax money on and what elected officials actually spent the money on began to grow. Antitax
revolts focused on this gap between taxpayers and "tax eaters," those who consumed public services without paying taxes for them.
During the twentieth century, property ownership broadened as immigrants and bluecollar workers bought their own homes. Also, more recently, taxation at the local
level has shifted away from dependence on property taxes and onto sales taxes. The result is that there is not now a class of taxpayers and a class of tax users or
consumers of government services. Everyone pays local taxes, including the poor in many cities. The result has been to shift the focus of concern to whether everyone
benefits from public taxation or only a few. For those services that benefit only a few, the question arises, why should everyone have to pay for them?
One solution is to charge user fees for services that benefit only or primarily users and not others. Revenue from fees has grown substantially at all levels of government
in the past twenty years in response to this pressure against paying for anyone else's services. A second approach has been for those who want narrow benefits to
trade support with others who also want narrow benefits. Thus they tolerate some projects that others want in exchange for support on their favored projects. Still,
there are expenditures in many budgets that benefit one group or interest that are not balanced by benefits to other groups or interests. Such expenditures can be
politically contentious.
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Sometimes whether there will be political stress is a matter of perception or presentation, not a characteristic of the actual program. Taxpayers who earn regular
incomes often bridle at paying welfare for those who do not work, seeing it as an outlay from which they do not and will not benefit. Viewed differently, however,
anyone could end up needing unemployment benefits or even welfare if the economy performs poorly or downsizing throws older workers out in the cold. If taxpayers
see themselves as possible future beneficiaries of a safety net, they may be willing to support it; to the extent that they see such expenditures as only for others and
believe that they will never need such services, they are more likely to oppose such programs.
The separation between taxpayer and budgetary decision maker highlights the importance of symbolic politics, that is, the way expenditures are presented and viewed.
Expenditures that benefit some narrow group may survive if they are represented as being for the collective good. For example, some economic development policies
are justified on the basis that everyone benefits from growth. Alternatively, expenditures may be justified in such terms that opposing them appears callow and
inhumane or destructive of collective benefits. Thus federal antipollution mandates may pass because it is politically impossible to oppose "clean air"; education
mandates for handicapped children may be politically impossible to oppose because who wants to be known for hurting handicapped children or their parents? 17
Sometimes it is difficult to make the argument that everyone benefits from an expenditure aimed at a few, or from a tax break that benefits a narrow group. The
argument may not be credible. Then the goal may be to make the expenditure look small instead.
In one illustration, a state university president decided to expand the bigtime sports program, in an environment of overall financial scarcity. While some faculty
members undoubtedly favored the action, many would have opposed it if they had been asked. The president did not ask their opinions, however; instead, the full
costs of the program were disguised to make the budget appear acceptable. Because of progressive underestimates of costs in the sports program, some pundits
labeled the sports program the case of the disappearing budget.
To obscure the real costs, the president broke up the costs for the program and scattered them among different portions of the budget. To complicate the picture
further, he drew on different pockets of revenue, including student athletic fees, bond revenues, and voluntary donations. When asked, he said money going to the
athletic programs was earmarked and could not be spent on other programs, so that professors trying to get more money to teach history or biology would look
elsewhere than to sports. The amount of money showing as costs in the athletic program remained constant every year, although the program
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costs were expanding. Fearing conflict and disapproval, the president hid the costs in the budget.
The more complicated the budget, the more different activities and accounts, the greater the discretion of the administrators. As one university president offered, ''Not
a day goes by when we do not wish we had a more complex budget." The complexity allows for choice of where to report expenditures, and which revenues to use,
to highlight some expenditures and gloss over others.
Because public demands may not be clearly expressed, and because different segments of the public may make different and competing demands, and because public
officials themselves may have other priorities, officials may not be able or willing to be bound tightly to public opinion. Nevertheless, if politicians knowingly make
decisions that differ from what the public seems to want, there is pressure to present the budget in a way that makes it appear acceptable. That pressure creates a
tension between accountability, which requires nearly complete openness, and acceptability, which sometimes involves hiding or distorting information or presenting it
in an unclear fashion.
It would be misleading to suggest that the tension between accountability and acceptability always leads to more distortion or more secrecy. Sometimes the balance
tends toward more accountability and budgets become clearer and more representative of true costs. The federal budget, for example, has moved toward clearer and
more comprehensive portraits of public expenditures in recent years. But the tension is always present.
The Budget Document and Accountability
Because of the separation of payer and decider, the budget document itself becomes an important means of public accountability. How did the public's representatives
actually decide to spend taxpayer money? Did they waste it? Did they spend it on defense or police or on social services? The streets are in terrible shape—how
much money did they spend on street repair? Citizens do not typically watch the decision making, but they and the press have access to the budget document and can
look for the answers. They can hold the government accountable through the budget, to see that what officials promised them was actually delivered.
In recent years there has been pressure to make budgets more readable and more informative. These efforts have included grouping expenditures by program and
establishing performance goals and measurements associated with each program. At the national level, the Government Performance and Results Act of 1993 (GPRA)
has mandated that all federal agencies provide program plans and performance measures. Agencies are busy trying to comply, with varying degrees
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of success. The goal of performance budgeting at all levels of government has been to broaden the notion of accountability from a record of where the money was
spent to how well the money was spent, and to hold public officials accountable for program outcomes and impacts. It is hoped that such clear reporting will help
rekindle public respect for government.
Minicase: The Government Performance and Result Act
The Government Performance and Results Act (GPRA) was to be implemented in
stages. Agenies were to come up with overall plans, including goals and program
impacts, and then with a series of measures for determining what progress the agency
was making, annually and over a period of years, toward the goals. Finally, these plans
and measures were to be included as part of the budgetary decision making.
Agencies have had a difficult time coming up with acceptable plans. The political
disagreement over what the goals of some agencies should be is intense. Some agencies
have found their goals difficult to measure, and success is difficult to attribute to a single
agency, because many agencies and societal changes contribute to overall outcomes and
impacts. Implementation has been slowed by cutbacks in staffing of precisely those
personnel who would have been engaged in creating performance plans. And the
budgetary cutbacks built into the 1997 balanced budget agreement require a level of cuts
that is no longer necessary because the budget is balanced (more or less), so the level of
resources agencies can expect is often unclear. It is difficult to promise a level of service
based on uncertain resource levels.
Performance budgeting is often an executive branch activity, changing the budget format
in ways that the legislative branch ignores. In the case of GPRA, however, some
members of Congress were intensely interested in the reforms, and they were also
determined that performance budgeting not shift power away from Congress. Agencies
were thus required to consult with their congressional committees before drawing up their
agency goals and plans. Key legislators were upset to find in 1997 that the Office of
Management and Budget in the Executive Office of the White House expected to review
agency plans before they were submitted to Congress for discussion. 18 To the extent
that the plans were jointly arrived at by Congress and the agencies, they could be used
as a budgetary standard. Agencies
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could argue that they needed the resources that were in the plan to achieve the goals
agreed on; Congress could argue that programs did not deserve the money because they
had failed to achieve appropriate portions of their goals within set time limits.
The performance reports were supposed to elevate the level of discussion between
Congress and the agency heads about agency budgets. Congress had nearly abandoned
the role of examining programs in detail because spending caps had removed a lot of
committee discretion. If appropriations subcommittees discovered problems in program
implementation, there was not enough flexibility to do much about it. What was given to
one agency had to be taken from another. It was easier not to know about problems.
But GPRA had the potential for increasing congressional control of programs, making
agency heads more responsive to congressional direction, and provinding a justification
for taking resources from one agency and giving them to another one.
Interestingly, both authorizing committees (in charge of designing and monitoring
programs) and appropriations committees (in charge of funding them) have expressed
interest in GPRA documents. The authorizing committees have expressed interest in the
specific plans for improving services and measuring performance and whether the
techniques for achieving the goals hurt or help their constituences. One subcommittee
was concerned, for example, that the administration was trying to reduce the costs of
loans by increasing the loan fees beyound the actual program costs. The appropriations
subcommittees have been more interested in whether the budget allocations match the
goals statements and whether the agenices have clear goals and objectives and
performance measures.
Agencies were expected to put their budgets into program formats and integrate those
formats with their budget requests. The following testimony from The Office of Personnel
Management (OPM) illustrates how one agency framed its budget request in terms of its
strategic plan:
Before considering our request in more detail, it is important to note that, in response to the
Government Performance and Results Act, we have included our annual performance plan
as an in integral part of our budget justification. We have used our strategic goals, and the
related series of objectives, as the basis for organizing our performance plan. Some of our
objectives relate to overall human resources management concerns; some are limited to
specific aspects, such as
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staffing or compensation. Some are governmentwide; some are confined to our own
agency.
Also, we have included in our budget justification for the first time a crosswalf of annual
performance goals and strategic plan goals and objectives, which we have organized by
fund and program activity. This presentation clearly links our resource allocations to our
strategic plan goals. For example, nearly $60 million and 625 fte's [full time equivalent
employees] will be directed to activities designed to achieve our goals of providing policy
direction and leadership to recruit and retain the federal workfoce requeired for the 21st
century.
As I review with you specific aspects of our request, I will touch on the means we will use
to achieve specific goals, as well as our strategies for measuring and validating our
achievements. 19
Increasingly at the federal level, budgets were being prepared and presented to the
Office of Management and Budget and to the appropriations committees and oversight
agencies in Congress in program and performance format, with at least some measurable
goals.20
The increased demands for accountability through cost or performance measurement have sometimes been problematic. If particular cost or performance measures
make an agency look worse, the agency may want to obscure the results or not use that measure. Also, performance measurement assumes a level of funding that is
known with reasonable certainty, a condition increasingly difficult to meet. Moreover, there is no clear linkage between performance measurement and budgeting; that
is, it is not clear if a poor performance report warrants additional spending or reduced spending. If the budget is used as a punishment for poor performance, elected
officials may send agencies into a downward spiral of deteriorating management quality.
The movement toward improved accountability, better reporting, and more readable budgets suggests more openness after the fact, not during the process. The model
suggests that public officials should be free from prior constraints and should be allowed to use their training and best judgment, but should be held accountable for
their choices after the fact. Accurate reporting of what they have done and the consequences of those decisions is absolutely necessary for this model to work. But if
elected officials have made choices that some members of the public disapprove of, officials may be reluctant to report the details of their decisions, lest they open
themselves to attack. Political opponents can use per
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formance data to attack an agency or program or administration, which contributes to a desire not to collect possibly damaging data or not to make it public. If public
officials have made mistakes, they may be reluctant to reveal them.
In spite of such difficulties, the level of explanation in public budgets has been rising, not falling. Even so, however, each budget represents some degree of selectivity
about what it will present and how. The art of selective revelation is part of public budgeting.
Openness to the Environment
Public budgets are open to the environment, which includes a number of different factors, such as the overall level of resources available (the amount of taxable wealth,
the existing tax structure, current economic conditions); the degree of certainty of revenues; and a variety of emergencies such as very heavy snowfall, tornadoes,
wars, bridge collapses, droughts, chemical explosions, and water pollution. The environment also includes rigidities resulting from earlier decisions, which may now be
embodied in law. For example, rapid inflation in housing prices in California resulted in a citizen referendum to protect against rapidly rising property taxes. The result
of the referendum was incorporated in the state constitution, limiting the taxing options of local governments. Constitutional restrictions to maintain a balanced budget
or limit expenditures or put a ceiling on borrowing operate in a similar manner. Prior borrowing creates a legal obligation for future budgets, an obligation that may
press other possible expenditures out of consideration or require higher levels of taxation. The environment in this sense may frame policy issues and limit alternatives.
Public opinion is also part of the budgetary environment, and the perception of change in public opinion will be reflected in changing budgets.
The intergovernmental system is also a key part of the environment for budget actors. The legal sources of revenues, limits on borrowing, strings attached to grants,
and mandated costs are but a few of the budgetary implications of the intergovernmental system. The requirement that some grants be spent on particular items or that
a recipient match expenditures on grants may result in a pattern of spending different from what the state or local government would have preferred.
Budgeting is open to the environment not only in the sense of changing revenue levels, emergency demands on spending, and the changing intergovernmental system
that frames responsibilities and revenue sources, but also in the sense that decision making itself is public. Committee hearings on the budget are public. Revenue and
expenditure proposals are public; they are reported in the newspapers and debated in editorials and letters to the editor. The budget
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as proposed and as adopted is available for public inspection, as are reported comparisons of plans and actual spending. The whole budget process takes place under
public scrutiny. Potentially embarrassing mistakes are harder to hide than in the private sector, and this may lead to a kind of caution. Public officials adapt to working
in a room with glass walls and no window blinds.
The openness of public budgets to the environment means that budgets have to be adaptable during the year when unexpected events occur. At the national level,
supplemental appropriations may help deal with emergencies such as wars, hurricanes, or earthquakes. At the state and local levels, there may be contingency
accounts to deal with unexpected events. The goal is to build in enough flexibility to deal with the problems at hand without changing the underlying policies that have
emerged from complex, public negotiations between multiple actors with different points of view.
Budget Constraints
Public budgeting is much more constrained than privatesector or family budgeting, because public budgeting is not limited only by the amount of revenue involved.
The federal government can mandate state expenditures, preempting state priorities; similarly, states can mandate expenditures for local government. Some state
governments tell local governments what format to use for a budget and what information has to be in the budget. States may limit borrowing levels for local
governments, or even require that all local borrowing be approved by the state government. The reason for the current emphasis on afterthefact reporting, rather
than prior controls, is that there were so many prior controls that government managers had a difficult time getting anything done. Despite the recent emphasis on after
thefact reporting, few prior constraints have actually been removed.
One of the constraints in the public sector is the fund structure. Public budgeting is based on funds, separate accounts for separate purposes. Money can be spent only
through those accounts and cannot be freely swapped between accounts. Such transfers normally require justification and explicit permission. Each account or fund
must balance, that is, revenue must equal or exceed expenditures. The result is not one bottom line, as in a family or business, but multiple bottom lines. Creating some
flexibility within these constraints is a continuing trial.
Some constraints have been placed on budgeting by those who oppose higher levels of taxation. They press for tax limits in statutes and constitutions, which may guide
decisions for decades. A second source of constraints is prior history of willfulness. Agency administrators sometimes abuse the discretion they
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have been granted, inviting tighter controls. If the executive branch makes too many transfers between funds or accounts, the legislature may limit the amount of money
that can be transferred. A third reason for prior constraints is to facilitate supervision. States cannot easily monitor local budgeting and financial condition if each
jurisdiction puts its budget in a different format or includes different information and uses different definitions of balance. Since the states are ultimately responsible for
the finances of local governments, they have an interest in keeping them healthy and identifying local governments that may be headed for trouble.
Prior constraints in public budgeting include the fund or account structure and constraints on transfers, tax limits, borrowing limits, requirements for referendums for tax
increases or general obligation bond issuance, uniform budget formats, and uniform accounting rules. There may be separate rules for limiting the number of employees
and their rank, and additional rules for purchasing and requirements for bidding out contracts or purchases. Reform in recent years has meant reducing some of these
prior controls—such as separate limits on total spending and on the number of personnel. But each proposal for reduction in constraints runs into the reason for the
constraint in the first place. Changes may reduce the ability of the state to supervise, or the legislature to control policy. Increased discretion may shift power from the
legislative to the executive branches, adding a layer of resistance. Or weakening of advanced controls may remove some political or policy tool that is still cherished.
Thus in 1993 and 1994 the Clinton administration urged greater discretion for executive branch officials, including discretion over staffing levels. Soon thereafter, the
administration and Congress proceeded to pass the Workforce Restructuring Act, reducing federal employment levels by some 270,000 employees. Despite the plea
for more agency autonomy, each agency still has an assigned personnel ceiling.
The Meaning of Politics in Public Budgeting
Public budgets have a number of special characteristics. These characteristics suggest some of the ways that the budget is political. Political is a word that covers a
number of meanings, even when narrowed to the context of budgetary decision making. The purpose of this book is to clarify the meaning of politics in the context of
budgeting by sorting out some key meanings and showing how these meanings apply to different parts of budgetary decision making.
The literature suggests at least five major ways of viewing politics in the budget: reformism, incrementalist bargaining, interestgroup determinism, process, and
policymaking.
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• The first is a reform orientation, which argues that politics and budgeting are or should be antithetical, that budgeting should be primarily or exclusively technical, and
that comparison between items should be technical and efficiency based. Politics in the sense of the opinions and priorities of elected officials and interest groups is an
unwanted intrusion that reduces efficiency and makes decision making less rational. The politics of reform involves a clash of views between professional staff and
elected officials over the boundary between technical budget decisions and properly political ones.
• The second perspective is the incrementalist view, which sees budgeting as negotiations among a group of routine actors, bureaucrats, budget officers, chief
executives, and legislators, who meet each year and bargain to resolution. To the extent that interest groups are included at all in this view, they are conceived of in the
pluralist model. The process is open, anyone can play and win, and the overall outcome is good; conflict is held down because everyone wins something and no one
wins too much.
• The third view is that interest groups are dominant actors in the budget process. In its extreme form this argument posits that richer and more powerful interest
groups determine the budget. Some interests are represented by interest groups, and others either are not, or are represented by weaker interest groups; the outcome
does not approximate democracy. There may be big winners and big losers in this model. Conflict is more extensive than in the incrementalist model. This view of
politics in budgeting raises the question whether these interest groups represent narrow or broad coalitions, or possibly even class interest. To what extent do these
interest groups represent oil or banking or the homeless, and to what extent do they represent business and labor more broadly?
• The fourth view of politics in the budget is that the budget process itself is the center and focus of budget politics. Those with particular budget goals try to change the
budget process to favor their goals. Branches of government struggle with one another over budgetary power through the budget process; the budget process
becomes the means of achieving or denying separation and balance between the branches of government. The degree of examination of budget requests, and the
degree to which review is technical or political, cursory or detailed, is regulated by the budget process. The ability of interest groups to influence the budget, the role of
the public in budget decisions, the openness of budget decision making—all these are part of the politics of process. In this view of politics, the individual actors and
their strategies and goals may or may
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not be important, depending on the role assigned to individual actors in the budget process, and depending on whether the external environment allows any flexibility.
• The fifth view is that the politics of budgeting centers in policy debates, including debates about the role of the budget. Spending levels, taxing policies, and
willingness to borrow to sustain spending during recessions are all major policy issues that have to be resolved one way or another during budget deliberations.
Budgets may reflect a policy of moderating economic cycles or they may express a policy of allowing the economy to run its course. Each is a policy. Similarly,
budgets must allocate funding to particular programs, and in the course of doing so, decide priorities for federal, state, and local governments. This view of politics in
the budget emphasizes tradeoffs, especially those that occur between major areas of the budget, such as social services and defense or police. This view also
emphasizes the role of the budget office in making policy and the format of the budget in encouraging comparisons between programs.
These five views of politics have been developed over time, and like an ancient document, the messages have been written over one another. Surely they are not all
equally true, and certainly they often contradict each other. Parts of each may still be true, and they may be true of different parts of budgetary decision making, or true
of budgetary decision making at different times or at different levels of government.
Budgetary Decision Making
This book explores the kind of politics that occurs in budgetary decision making. What is budgetary decision making like? We have already discovered that public
budgeting is open to environmental changes and deals with policy conflicts. Policy conflicts can delay particular decisions or prevent them from being made at all; other
budget decisions must be independent enough to be made without the missing pieces. They can be corrected later when missing pieces fall into place. Environmental
emergencies can reorder priorities and alter targets that have already been determined. As a result, public budgeting must be segmentable and interruptible. The need
for segmentation and interruptibility is satisfied by dividing budgeting into separate but linked decision clusters: revenues, process, expenditures, balance, and
implementation.
Decision making in each cluster proceeds somewhat separately, but with reference to decisions made or anticipated in other decision streams. Decisions on spending
are made with an eye on revenue totals, even though revenue estimates
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may not yet be firm. Decisions in different streams may be made iteradvely, with tentative revenue estimates followed by tentative spending estimates, and followed in
turn by updated revenue estimates and a finetuning of spending estimates. The order of decision making may be variable from year to year. In one year, there may be
no change in the definition of balance, so that prior years' definitions frame this year's deliberations. In another year, the definition of balance may change during the
deliberations, requiring adjustments in spending or revenue plans. Sometimes the decision making moves faster in one cluster than in another, and decision makers in
the cluster that is ahead may have to guess or anticipate what the decisions will be in other clusters and revise later if necessary.
Each cluster attracts a different characteristic set of actors and generates its own typical pattern of politics. Some clusters have heavy interestgroup activity, while
others have virtually none; some clusters are marked by intense competition and negotiations and efforts to bind future decisions to restrict open competition; some are
marked by deep ideological splits, while others seem not to be ideological at all. Some are marked by dominance of a technical perspective, while others are clearly
determined by the priorities of elected officials and the public, and still others represent a blend of the two.
The Revenue Cluster
Revenue decisions include technical estimates of how much income will be available for the following year, assuming no change in the tax structures, and policy
decisions about changes in the level or type of taxation. Will taxes be raised or lowered? Will tax breaks be granted, and if so, to whom, for what purpose? Which tax
sources will be emphasized, and which deemphasized, with what effect on regions and economic classes, or on age groups? How visible will the tax burden be?
Interest groups are intensely involved in the revenue cluster. The revenue cluster emphasizes the scarcity of resources that is an essential element in budgeting and
illustrates the tension between accountability and acceptability that is a characteristic of public budgets. Revenues are also extremely sensitive to the environment
because changes in the economy influence revenue levels and because the perception of public opinion influences the public officials' willingness to increase taxes.
The Budget Process
The process cluster concerns how to make budget decisions. Who should participate in the budget deliberations? Should the agency heads have power inde
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pendent of the central budget office? How influential should interest groups be? How much power should the legislature have? How should the work be divided, and
when should particular decisions be made? Normally the legislature takes a key role in establishing budget process, although the chief executive may propose desired
changes. Interest groups play a minor role, if any role at all. The politics of process may revolve around individuals or groups trying to maximize their power through
rearranging the budget process. This jockeying for power rises to importance when the competing parties represent the executive and legislative branches and try to
influence the separation and balance between the branches of government. The politics of process may revolve around the policy issues of the level of spending and
the ability of government to balance its budget.
The Expenditure Cluster
The expenditure cluster involves some technical estimates of likely expenditures, such as for grants that are dependent on formulas and benefit programs whose costs
depend on the level of unemployment. But many expenditure decisions are policy relevant—which programs will be funded at what level, who will benefit from public
programs and who will not, where and how cuts will be made, and whose interests will be protected. Agency heads are more involved in these decisions than in
taxation or process decisions, and interest groups are also often active. The expenditure portion of the budget emphasizes competition for limited resources and the
resulting tradeoffs, choices between specific sets of alternatives. If we want more money spent on streets, does that translate into less money spent on day care? Does
more money spent on hurricane relief translate into less money for defense or for housing for the poor?
The Balance Cluster
The balance cluster concerns the basic budgetary question of whether the budget has to be balanced each year with each year's revenues, or whether borrowing is
allowed to balance the budget, and if so, how much, for how long, and for what purposes. The politics of balance deals with questions of whether balance should be
achieved by increasing revenues, decreasing expenditures, or both, and hence reflects policies about the desirable scope of government. Sometimes the politics of
balance emphasizes definitions, as the group in power seeks to make its deficits look smaller by defining them away. The balance cluster also deals with questions of
how deficits should be eliminated once they occur and their amounts are pinned down. At the national level, because deficits may be incurred during recessions in an
effort to help the economy recover, the ability to run a deficit
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is linked to policies favoring or opposing the role of the budget in controlling the economy and, in particular, the use of the budget to moderate unemployment. These
issues—whether budgets should balance, the proper scope of government and level of taxation, and the role of government in moderating unemployment—are issues
that the general public cares about. Citizens may participate in this decision cluster through referendums and opinion polls; broad groups of taxpayers and interest
group coalitions representing broad segments of society may be involved in lobbying on this issue. Political parties may even include their policies toward deficits in
their election platforms.
Budget Implementation
Finally, there is a cluster of decisions around budget implementation. How close should actual expenditures be to the ones planned in the budget? How can one justify
variation from the budget plan? Can the budget be remade after it is approved, during the budget year? The key issues here revolve around the need to implement
decisions exactly as made and the need to make changes during the year because of changes in the environment. The potential conflict is usually resolved by treating
implementation as technical rather than policy related. Executive branch staff play the major role in implementation, with much smaller and more occasional roles for
the legislature. Interest groups play virtually no role in implementation. The allowance for technical changes does open the door to policy changes during the year, but
these are normally carefully monitored and may cause open conflict when they occur.
Microbudgeting and Macrobudgeting
The five clusters of decision making outline the nature of the decisions actually being made, but tell little about how and why the decisions are made. On the one hand
there are a number of budget actors, who all have individual motivations, who strategize to get what they want from the budget. The focus on the actors and their
strategies is called microbudgeting. But the actors do not simply bargain with one another or with whomever they meet in the corridor. The actors are assigned
budget roles by the budget process, the issues they examine are often framed by the budget process, and the timing and coordination of their decisions are often
regulated by the budget process. The budget actors are not totally free to come to budget agreements in any way they choose. Individual actors are bound by
environmental constraints. There are choices they are not free to make because they are against the law, or because the courts decree it, or because previous decision
makers have bound their hands. The total amount of
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revenue available is a kind of constraint, as is popular demand for some programs and popular dislike of others. Budgetary decision making has to account not just for
budgetary actors but also for budget processes and the environment. This more topdown and systemic perspective on budgeting is called macrobudgeting.
Contemporary budgeting gives more emphasis to macrobudgeting than exclusively to microbudgeting.
One way of viewing the determinants of budgetary outcomes is as a causal model, depicted in figure 1.1. In this schema, the environment, budget processes, and
individuals' strategies all affect outcomes.
The environment influences budgetary outcomes directly and indirectly, through process and through individual strategies. The environment influences outcomes
directly, without going through either budget process or individual strategies, when it imposes emergencies that reorder priorities. Thus a war or a natural disaster
preempts normal budgetary decision making.
The environment influences the budget process in several ways. The level of resources available—both the actual level of wealth and the willingness of the citizens to
pay their taxes—influences the degree of centralization of budgeting. When resources are especially scarce and there is apparent need to either cut back according to
a given set of policies or make each dollar count toward specific economic goals, there is no room for bottomup demands that result in compromises and a little bit of
gain for everyone regardless of need. When resources are abundant, a more decentralized model of process may hold, with less emphasis on comparing policies and
less competition between supporters of different policies.
The environment may influence the format of the budget as well as the degree of centralization of decision making. When revenues are growing, there may be more
emphasis on planning and on linking the budget to future community goals, to stimulate public demands for new spending. When there is little new money, the idea of
planning may seem superfluous. Changing direction, or setting new goals, may seem impossible in the face of declining revenues that make current goals difficult to
sustain.
Environment in the sense of the results of prior decisions may also influence process. If there is a huge accumulation of debt and little apparent way to con
Figure 1.1
Decision Making: Environment, Process, and Strategies
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trol it, or if the budget has been growing very rapidly for reasons other than war, there may be attempts to change the budget process in an effort to control spending
and debt. In contrast, if the environment suggests the need for additional spending, and the current budget process is delivering very slow growth, the process may be
changed to make spending decisions quicker and easier.
The environment influences not only the budget process but also the strategies of the budget actors. Clearly, the level of resources available determines whether actors
press for new programs and expansion of existing ones or if they strive to prevent cuts and protect their revenue sources from encroachment by other programs.
The level of certainty of funding influences strategies as well. If whatever an agency was promised may never arrive, agency heads are likely to engage in continuous
lobbying for their money. Longterm or future agreements will be perceived as worthless; the possibility of toning down conflict by stretching out budget allocation
times will disappear. Attention will focus on what is available now, and going after whatever it is, whether it is what you want or not, because what you really want may
never show up and hence is not worth waiting for.
The intergovernmental grant structure is part of the environment that may influence strategies. Because some grant money may seem free, state and local governments
may focus their energies on getting grants instead of raising local revenues. Or they may seek to decrease the amount of match required for a grant or increase their
authority over how the money can be spent. Intergovernmental grants may make some expenditures relatively cheap, and some cutbacks relatively expensive, and
hence frame constraints and choices for state and local budget officials.
The legal environment also influences strategies. For example, if public school teachers want tax raises to fund education and there is a provision in the state
constitution forbidding income taxes, the teachers must either campaign for a constitutional revision (a timeconsuming and difficult task) or support a tax they know to
be more burdensome to the poor. Thus the environment frames choices and influences strategies.
In figure 1.1, the budget process influences strategies directly and, to a lesser extent, outcomes directly. But there is a doubleheaded arrow on the linkage between
budget processes and strategies, suggesting that individuals' strategies also influence budget processes.
Budget processes influence strategies in some fairly obvious ways. If the budget structure allows for lengthy detailed budget hearings, open to the public and interest
groups, at which decisions are often made, then various actors are likely to concentrate their efforts on making a good impression at these hearings. If the chief
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executive prepares the budget, which is subject to only superficial scrutiny and pro forma hearings before being approved by the legislature, anyone who wants to
influence the budget—including the legislators themselves—must make their opinions heard earlier in the process, before the final executive proposal is put together.
Informal discussion with department heads, or even telephone calls to the budget office, may be the route to influence. If the budget is made two or three times, with
only the last one effective, then strategies may be to play out the first time or two with grandstanding—extreme positions to attract media attention—and more detailed
and moderate positions later when the final decisions are made. The budget process orders the decisions in such a way that some of them are critical and determine or
influence those that come afterward. Budget strategies naturally gravitate to those key decisions no matter where they are located.
When budget outcomes contradict some group's preference, the group may try to change the budget process to help it get the outcomes it prefers. When coalitions of
the dissatisfied can agree on particular changes, fairly substantial changes in process may result. A change in process will bring about a change in outcome if the change
in process shifts power from one group of individuals who want to accomplish one goal to another group with different goals.
The final link in the figure is between the strategies of budget actors and outcomes. The effect of different strategies on the outcomes is hard to gauge. It seems
obvious, however, that strategies that ignore the process or the environment are doomed to failure. Budget actors have to figure out where the flexibility is before they
can influence how that flexibility will be used. Strategies that try to bypass superiors or fool legislators generally do not work; strategies that involve careful
documentation of need and appear to save money are generally more successful. 21
Summary and Conclusions
Public budgeting shares the characteristics of all budgeting. It makes choices between possible expenditures, it has to balance, and it has a decisionmaking process.
But public budgeting has a number of additional features peculiar to itself, such as its openness to the environment; the variety of actors involved in budgeting, all of
whom come to it with different goals; the separation of taxpayers from budget decision makers; the use of the budget document as a means of public accountability;
and the numerous constraints typical of public budgeting.
Public budgeting is both technical and political. Politics takes on some special meanings in the context of budgetary decision making. Budgetary decision making must
be flexible, adaptive, and interruptible, which leads to a structure
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of five semiindependent strands of decision making: revenues, process, expenditures, balance, and implementation. Each such strand generates its own political
characteristics.
Budget outcomes are not solely the result of budget actors negotiating with one another in a freeforall; outcomes depend on the environment, and on the budget
process as well as individual strategies. Individual strategies have to be framed in a broader context than simply perceived selfinterest.
Budgeting is not well described as an annual process with little change from year to year. Budgetary decision making changes over time: interest group power waxes
and wanes, competition in the budget increases and decreases, and the budget process itself varies over time. Changes in process take place in response to
individuals, committees, and branches of government jockeying for power; in response to changes in the environment from rich to lean, or vice versa; in response to
changes in the power of interest groups; and in response to scandals or excesses of various kinds.
Chapters 2 to 8 describe the patterns of politics associated with each of the decision streams, and the sources and patterns of change over time. The final chapter
integrates the decision streams into one model of budgetary decision making and points out the commonalities and differences among the decision streams.
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