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RACIAL IDENTIFICATION AND PREFERENCE 169

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RACIAL IDENTIFICATION AND PREFERENCE I N NEGRO CHILDREN By Kenneth B. Clark and Mamie P. Clark

PROBLEM

The specific problem of this study is an analysis of the genesis and development of racial identification as a function of ego development and self-awareness in Negro children.

Race awareness, in a primary sense, is defined as a consciousness of the self as belonging to a specific group which is differentiated from other observable groups by obvious physical character­ istics which are generally accepted as being racial characteristics.

Because the problem of racial identi­ fication is so definitely related to the problem of the genesis of racial attitudes in children, it was thought practicable to attempt to determine the racial atti­ tudes or preferences of these Negro chil­ dren-and to define more precisely, as far as possible, the developmental pat­ tern of this relationship.

PROCEDURE

This paper presents results from only one of several techniques devised and used by the authors to investigate the development of racial identification and preferences in Negro children.1 Results presented here are from the Dolls Test.

Dolls Test. The subjects were pre­ sented with four dolls, identical in every respect save skin color. Two of these dolls were brown with black hair and two were white with yellow hair. In the ex­ perimental situation these dolls were un-

clothed except for white diapers. The position of the head, hands, and legs on all the dolls was the same. For half of the subjects the dolls were presented in the order: white, colored. white, colored. For the other half the order of presenta­ tion was reversed. In the experimental situation the subjects were asked to re­ spond to the following requests by choosing one of the dolls and giving it to the experimenter:

1. Give me the doll that you like to play with- (a) like best.

2. Give me the doll that is a nice doll. 3. Give me the doll that looks bad. 4. Give me the doll that is a nice color. 5. Give me the doll that looks like a

white child. 6. Give me the doll that looks like a

colored child. 7. Give me the doll that looks like a

Negro child. 8. Give me the doll that looks like

you. Requests 1 through 4 were designed

to reveal preferences; requests 5 through 7 to indicate a knowledge of "racial differences"; and request 8 to show self­ identification.

It was found necessary to present the preference requests first in the experi­ mental situation because in a preliminary investigation it was clear that the chil­ dren who had already identified them­ selves with the colored doll had a marked tendency to indicate a preference for this doll and this was not necessarily a gen-

Condensed by the authors from an unpublished study made possible by a fellowship grant from the Julius Rosenwald Fund, 1940-1941.

1 Other techniques presented in the larger study include: (1) a coloring test; (2) a questionnaire and (3) a modification of the Horowitz line drawing technique. (R. E. Horowitz, "Racial Aspects of Self-identification in Nursery School Children," J. Psychol., 1939, VII, 91-99.)

Age, years North South Total

3 13 18 31 4 10 19 29 5 34 12 46 6 33 39 72 7 29 46 75

Total . 119 134 253

Sex distribution of subjects:

___Sex ____ , ___ North South Total --- - - -

Male . 53 63 116 Female 66 71 137

Skin color of subjects:

Skin color North South Total

Light,. 33 13 46 Medium b 58 70 128 Dark 0 28 51 79

• light (practically white) b medium (light brown to dark brown) 0 dark (dark brown to black)

170 SOCIALIZATION OF THE CHILD

uine expression of actual preference, bu a reflection of ego involvement. Thi potential distortion of the data was con­ trolled by merely asking the children to indicate their preferences first and then to make identifications with one of the dolls.

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SUBJECTS

Two hundred fifty-three Negro chil dren formed the subjects of this experi ment. One hundred thirty-four of these subjects (southern group) were tested i segregated nursery schools and public schools in Hot Springs, Pine Bluff, and Little Rock, Arkansas. These children had had no experience in racially mixed school situations. One hundred nineteen subjects (northern group) were tested in the racially mixed nursery and public schools of Springfield, Massachusetts.

Age distribution of subjects :

­ ­

n

All subjects were tested individually in a schoolroom or office especially pro­ vided for this purpose. Except for a few children who showed generalized nega­ tivism from the beginning of the experi­ ment (results for these children are not included here), there was adequate rap­ port between the experimenter and all subjects tested. In general, the children showed high interest in and enthusiasm for the test materials and testing situ­ ation. The children, for the most part, considered the experiment somewhat of a game.

RESULTS

Racial Identification. Although the questions on knowledge of "racial dif­ ferences" and self-identification followed those designed to determine racial pref­ erence in the actual experimental situ­ ation, it appears more meaningful to discuss the results in the following order: knowledge of "racial differences," racial self-identification, and finally racial pref­ erences.

The results of the responses to requests 5, 6, and 7, which were asked to deter­ mine the subjects' knowledge of racial differences, may be seen in Table 1. Ninety-four percent of these children chose the white doll when asked to give the experimenter the white doll; 93 per­ cent of them chose the brown doll when asked to give the colored doll; and, 72 percent chose the brown doll when asked to give the Negro doll. These re­ sults indicate a clearly established knowl­ edge of a "racial difference" in these subjects-and some awareness of the relation between the physical character­ istic of skin color and the racial concepts of "white" and "colored." Knowledge of the concept of "Negro" is not so well developed as the more concrete verbal concepts of "white" and "colored" as applied to racial differences.

The question arises as to whether choice of the brown doll or of the white oll, particularly in response to ques-d

RACIAL IDENTIFICATION AND PREFERENCE 171

TABLE 1

CHOICES OF ALL SUBJECTS

Request 5 Request 6 Request 7 Request 8 (for white) (for colored) (for Negro) (for you) Choice

No. Percent ---

No. Percent No. Percent No. - ----- ---

Percent - - - --- - --

Colored doll 13 5 235 93 182 72 166 66 White doll. 237 94 15 6 50 20 85 33 Don't know or no response 3 1 .) 1 21 8 2 1

tions S and 6, really reveals a knowledge of "racial differences" or simply indi­ cates a learned perceptual reaction to the concepts of "colored" and "white." Our evidence that the responses of these children do indicate a knowledge of "racial difference" comes from several sources: the results from other tech­ niques used (i.e.', a coloring test and a questionnaire) and from the qualitative data obtained (children's spontaneous remarks) strongly support a knowledge of "racial differences." Moreover, the consistency of results for requests S through 8 also tends to support the fact that these children are actually making identifications in a "racial" sense.

The responses to request 8, designed to determine racial self-identification fol­ low the following pattern: 66 percent of the total group of children identified themselves with the colored doll, while 33 percent identified themselves with the white doll. The critical ratio of this difference is 7.6.2

Comparing the results of request 8 (racial self-identification) with those of requests 5, 6, and 7 (knowledge of racial difference) it is seen that the awareness of racial differences does not necessarily determine a socially accurate racial self­ identification-since approximately nine out of ten of these children are aware of racial differences as indicated by their correct choice of a "white" and "colored" doll on request, and only a

little more than six out of ten make socially correct identifications with the colored doll.

Age Differences. Table 2 shows that, when the responses to requests S and 6 are observed together, these subjects at each age level have a well-developed knowledge of the concept of racial differ­ ence between "white" and "colored" as this is indicated by the characteristic of skin color. These data definitely indicate that a basic knowledge of "racial differ­ ences" exists as a part of the pattern of ideas of Negro children from the age of three through seven years in the north­ ern and southern communities tested in this study- and that this knowledge de­ velops more definitely from year to year to the point of absolute stability at the age of seven.

A comparison of the results of re­ quests S and 6 with those of request 7, which required the child to indicate the doll which looks like a "Negro" child, shows that knowledge of a racial differ­ ence in terms of the word "Negro" docs not exist with the same degree of defi­ niteness as it does in terms of the more basic designations of "white" and "colored." It is significant, however, that knowledge of a difference in terms of the word "Negro" makes a sharp increase from the five- to the six-year level and a less accelerated one between the six­ and seven-year levels. The fact that all of the six-year-olds used in this investi-

2 These results are supported by similar ones from the Horowitz line drawing technique.

172 SOCIALIZATION OF THE CHILD

TABLE 2

CHOICES OF SUBJECTS AT EACH AGE LEVEL*

3 yr. 4 yr. 5 yr. 6 yr. 7 yr.

Choice Per- Per- Per- Per- Per-

No. No. No. No. No. cent cent cent cent cent

------------- Request 5 (for white)

colored doll 4 13 4 14 3 7 2 3 0 white doll 24 77 25 86 43 94 70 97 75 100

Request 6 (for colored)

colored doll 24 77 24 83 43 94 69 96 75 100 white doll 4 13 5 17 3 7 3 4 0

Request 7 (for Negro)

colored doll 17 55 17 59 28 61 56 78 64 85 white doll 9 29 10 35 14 30 12 17 5 7

Request 8 (for you)

colored doll 11 36 19 66 22 48 49 68 65 87 white doll . 19 61 9 31 24 52 23 32 10 13

• Individuals failing to make either choice not included, hence some percentages add to less than 100.

gation were enrolled in the public schools seems to be related to this spurt. Since it seems clear that the term "Negro" is a more verbalized designa­ tion of "racial differences," it is reason­ able to assume that attendance at public schools facilitates the development of this verbalization of the race concept held by these children.

In response to request 8 there is a general and marked increase in the per­ cent of subjects who identify with the colored doll with an increase in age­ with the exception of the four- to five­ year groups.3 This deviation of the five­ year-olds from the general trend is con­ sidered in detail in the larger, yet un­ published study.

Identification by Skin Color. Table 3

shows slight and statistically insignificant differences among the three skin-color groups in their responses which indicate a knowledge of the "racial difference " between the white and colored doll (requests 5 through 7).

It should be noted, however, that the dark group is consistently more accurate in its choice of the appropriate doll than either the light or the medium group on requests 5 through 7. This would seem to indicate that the dark group is slightly more definite in its knowledge of racial differences and that this definiteness ex­ tends even to the higher level of verbali­ zation inherent in the use of the term "Negro" as a racial designation. In this regard it is seen that 75 percent of the dark children chose the colored doll

3 These results are supported by those from the use of the Horowitz line drawing technique.

RACIAL IDENTIFICATION AND PREFERENCE 173

TABLE 3

CHOICES OF SUBJECTS IN LICHT, MEDIUM, ANO DARK GROUPS*

Light Medium Dark Choice

No. Percent No. Percent No. Percent

Request 5 (for white)

colored doll 2 5 8 6 3 4 white doll 43 94 118 92 76 96

Request 6 (for colored)

colored doll 41 89 118 92 76 96 white doll 4 9 8 6 3 4

Request 7 (for Negro)

colored doll 32 70 91 71 59 75 white doll 9 20 27 21 14 18

Request 8 (for you)

colored doll 9 20 93 73 64 81 white doll 37 80 33 26 15 19

* Individuals failing to make either choice not included, hence some percentages add to less than 100.

when asked for the doll which "looks like a Negro child" while only 70 percent of the light children and 71 percent of the medium children made this response. The trend of results for requests 5 and 6 remains substantially the same.

These results suggest further that cor­ rect racial identification of these Negro children at these ages is to a large extent determined by the concrete fact of their own skin color, and further that this racial identification is not necessarily dependent upon the expressed knowledge of a racial difference as indicated by the correct use of the words "white," "colored," or "Negro" when responding to white and colored dolls. This conclu­ sion seems warranted in the light of the fact that those children who differed

in skin color from light through medium to dark were practically similar in the pattern of their responses which indi­ cated awareness of racial differences but differed markedly in their racial identi­ fication (responses to request 8 for the doll "that looks like you") only 20 per­ cent of the light children, while 73 per­ cent of the medium children, and 81 percent of the dark children identified themselves with the colored doll.

It is seen that there is a consistent in­ crease in choice of the colored doll from the light to the medium group; an in­ crease from the medium group to the dark group; and, a striking increase in the choices of the colored doll by the dark group as compared to the light group.4 All differences, except between

• These results substantiate and clearly focus the trend observed through the use of the Horowitz line drawing technique.

174 SOCIALIZATION OF THE CHILD

TABLE 4

CHOICES OF SUBJECTS IN NORTHERN (MIXED SCHOOLS) AND SOUTHERN

(SEGREGATED SCHOOLS) GROUPS*

North, South, Choice percent percent

Request 5 (for white) colored doll 4 6 white doll . 94 93

Request 6 (for colored) colored doll 92 94 white doll . 7 5

Request 7 (for Negro) colored doll 74 70 white doll . 20 19

Request 8 (for you) colored doll 61 69 white doll . 39 29

*Individuals failing to make either choice not included, hence some percentages add to le-.is than 100.

the medium and dark groups, are statis­ tically significant.

Again, as in previous work,5 it is shown that the percentage of the medium groups' identifications with the white or the colored representation resembles more that of the dark group and differs from the light group. Upon the basis of these results, therefore, one may assume that some of the factors and dynamics involved in racial identification are sub­ stantially the same for the dark and · medium children, in contrast to dynam­ ics for the light children.

North-South Differences. The results presented in Table 4 indicate that there are no significant quantitative differences between the northern and southern Negro children tested (children in mixed schools and children in segregated

schools) in their knowledge of racial differences.

While none of these differences is sta­ tistically reliable, it is significant that northern children know as well as southern children which doll is supposed to represent a white child and which doll is supposed to represent a colored child. However, the northern children make fewer identifications with the colored doll and more identifications with the white doll than do the southern children. One factor accounting for this difference may be the fact that in this sample there are many more light colored children in the North (33) than there are in the South (13). Since this difference in self-identifi­ cation is not statistically significant, it may be stated that the children in the northern mixed-school situation do not

6 K. B. and M . P. Clark, "Skin Color as a Factor in Racial Identification of Negro Preschool Children," J. Soc. Psychol., 1940, XI, 159--169; "Segregation as a Factor in the Racial Identification of Negro Preschool Chlldren: a preliminary report," J . &per. Educ., 1939, IX, 161-163; "The Development of Consciousness of Self and the Emergence of Racial Identification in Negro Pre­ school Children," J. Soc. Psychol., 1939, X, 591-599.

RACIAL IDENTIFICATION AND PREFERENCE 175

TABLE 5

Cuo1CEs OF ALL SUBJECTS

Request 1 Request 2 Reque:;t 3 Request 4 (play with) (nice doll) (looks bad) (nice color) Choice

No. Percent No. --- Percent

- No. - -

Percent No. Percent - - - ------

Colored doll 83 32 97 38 149 59 96 38 White doll. 169 67 150 59 42 17 151 60 Don't know or

no response l l 6 3 62 24 6 2

differ from children in the southern segregated schools in either their knowl­ edge of racial differences or their racial identification. A more qualitative analy­ sis will be presented elsewhere.

Racial Preferences. It is clear from Table 5 that the majority of these Negro children prefer the white doll and reject the colored doll.

Approximately two thirds of the sub­ jects indicated by their responses to re­ quests 1 and 2 that they like the white doll "best," or that they would like to play with the white doll in preference to the colored doll, and that the white doll is a "nice doll."

Their responses to request 3 show that this preference for the white doll implies a concomitant negative attitude to­ ward the brown doll. Fifty-nine percent of these children indicated that the colored doll "looks bad," while only 17 percent stated that the white doll "looks bad" (critical ratio 10.9). That this preference and negation in some way involve skin color is indicated by the results for request 4. Only 38 percent of the children thought that the brown doll was a "nice color," while 60 percent of them thought that the white doll was a "nice color" (critical ratio 5.0).

The importance of these results for an understanding of the origin and develop­ ment of racial concepts and attitudes in Negro children cannot be minimized. Of equal significance are their implications, in the light of the results of racial identi-

:fication already presented, for racial mental hygiene.

Age Differences. Table 6 shows that at each age from three through seven years the majority of these children prefer the white doll and reject the brown doll. This tendency to prefer the white doll is not as stable (not statistically reliable) in the three-year-olds as it is in the four­ and five-year-olds. On the other hand, however, the tendency of the three-year­ olds to negate the brown doll (" looks bad") is established as a statistically significant fact (critical ratio 4.5).

Analyzing the results of requests 1 and 2 together, it is seen that there is a marked increase in preference for the white doll from the three- to the four-year level; a more gradual decrease in this preference from the four- to the five-year level; a further decrease from the five- to the six­ year level; and a continued decrease from the six- to the seven-year level. These results suggest that although the majority of Negro children at each age prefer the white doll to the brown do11, this preference decreases gradually from four through seven years.

Skin color preferences of these children follow a somewhat different pattern of development. The results of request 4 show that while the majority of children at each age below 7 years prefer the skin color of the white doll, this preference increases from three through five years and decreases from five through seven years. It is of interest to point out that

CHOICES OF SUBJECTS AT EACH AGE LEVEL*

3 yr. 4 yr. 5 yr. 6 yr. 7 yr.

Choice Per- Per- Per- Per- Per-

No. No. No. No. No. cent cent cent cent cent ------------------

Request 1 (play with)

colored doll 13 42 7 24 12 26 21 29 30 40 white doll 17 55 22 76 34 74 51 71 45 60

Request 2 (nice doll)

colored doll 11 36 7 24 13 28 33 46 33 44 white doll 18 58 22 76 33 72 38 53 39 52

Request 3 (looks bad)

colored doll 21 68 15 52 36 78 45 63 32 43 white doll 6 19 7 24 5 11 11 15 13 17

Request 4 (nice color)

colored doll 12 39 8 28 9 20 31 43 36 48 white doll . 18 58 21 72 36 78 40 56 36 48

* Individuals failing to make either choice not included, hence some percentages add to less than 100.

TABLE 6

TABLE 7

CHOICES OF SUBJECTS IN LIGHT, MEDIUM, AND DARK GROUPS*

Light Medium Dark Choice

No. Percent No. Percent No. Percent

Request 1 (play with) colored doll 11 24 41 32 31 39 white doll 35 76 86 67 48 61

Request 2 (nice doll) colored doll 15 33 50 39 32 40 white doll 31 67 72 56 47 60

Request 3 (looks bad) colored doll 31 67 73 57 45 57 white doll 6 13 22 17 14 18

Request 4 (nice color) colored doll 13 28 56 44 27 34 white doll 32 70 68 53 51 65

* Individuals failing to make either choice not included, hence some percentages add to less than 100.

RACIAL IDENTIFICATION AND PREFERENCE

TABLE 8

CHOICES OF SUBJECTS IN NORTHERN (MIXED SCUOOLS) AND SounmRN (SEGREGATED SCHOOLS) GROUPS (REQUESTS 1 TiIROUGH 4)*

North, South, Choice percent percent

Request 1 (play with) colored doll 28 37 white doll . 72 62

Request 2 (nice doll) colored doll 30 46 white doll . 68 52

Request 3 (looks bad) colored doll 7l 49 white doll . 17 16

Request 4 (nice color) colored doll 37 40 white doll . 63 57

• Individuals miling to make either choice not included, hence some percentages add to less than 100.

177

only al the seven-year level do the same number of children indicate a preference for the skin color of the colored doll as for that of the white doll.

The majority of these children at each age level indicate that the brown doll, rather than the white doll, "looks bad." This result shows positively the nega­ tion of the colored doll which was im­ plicit in the expressed preference for the white doll discussed above.

The evaluative rejection of the brown doll is statistically significant, even at the three-year level, and is pronounced al the five-year level. The indicated pref­ erence for the white doll is statistically significant from the four-year level up to the seven-year level.

It seems justifiable to assume from these results that the crucial period in the formation and patterning of racial attitudes begins at around four and five years. At these ages these subjects appear to be reacting more uncritically in a definite structuring of attitudes which

conforms with the accepted racial value and mores of the larger environment.

Preferences and Skin Color. Result presented in Table 7 reveal that there i a tendency for the majority of these chil­ dren, in spite of their own skin color, t prefer the white doll and to negate th brown doll. This tendency is most pro nounced in the children of light skin color and least so in the dark children. A more intensive analysis of these results appearsinalarger,yet unpublished study.

North-South Differences. From Table 8 it is clear that the southern children in segregated schools are less pronounced in their preference for the white doll, compared to the northern children's defi­ nite preference for this doll. Although still in a minority, a higher percentage of southern children, compared to northern, prefer to play with the colored doll or think that it is a "nice" doll. The criti­ cal ratio of this difference is not signifi­ cant for request 1 but approaches sig­ nificance for request 2 (2.75).

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178 SOCIALIZATION OF THE CHILD

A significantly higher percentage (71) of the northern children, compared to southern children (49) think that the brown doll looks bad (critical ratio 3.68). Also a slightJy higher percent of the southern children think that the brown doll has a" nice color," while more north­ ern children think that the white doll has a "nice color."

In general, it may be stated that north­ ern and sou them children in these age groups tend to be similar in the degree of their preference for the white doll­ with the northern children tending to be somewhat more favorable to the white doll than are the southern children. The southern children, however, in spite of their equal favorableness toward the white doll, are significantly less likely to reject the brown doll (evaluate it nega­ tively), as compared to the strong tend­ ency for the majority of the northern children to do so. That this difference is not primarily due to the larger number of light children found in the northern sample is indicated by more intensive analysis presented in the complete report.

Some Qualitative Data. Many of the children entered into the experimental situation with a freedom similar to that of play. They tended to verbalize freely and much of this unsolicited verbalization was relevant to the basic problems of this study.

On the whole, the rejection of the brown doll and the preference for the white doll, when explained at all, were explained in rather simple, concrete terms: for white-doll preference-" 'cause he's pretty" or " 'cause he's white"; for

rejection of the brown doll-" 'cause he's ugly" or "'cause it don't look pretty" or " 'cause him black" or "got black on him."

On the other hand, some of the chil­ dren who were free and relaxed in the beginning of the experiment broke down and cried or became somewhat nega­ tivistic during the latter part when they were required to make self-identifica­ tions. Indeed, two children ran out of the testing room, unconsolable, con­ vulsed in tears. Thi:. type of behavior, although not so extreme, was more prev­ alent in the North than in the South. The sou them children who were disturbed by this aspect of the experiment generally indicated their disturbance by smiling or matter of factly attempting to escape their dilemma either by attempted humor or rationalization.

Rationalization of the rejection of the brown doll was found among both north­ ern and southern children, however. A northern medium six-year-old justified his rejection of the brown doll by stating that "he looks bad 'cause he hasn't got a eyelash." A seven-year-old medium northern child justified his choice of the white doll as the doll with a" nice color" because "his feet, hands, ears, elbows, knees, and hair are clean."

A northern five-year-old dark child felt compelled to explain his identifica­ tion with the brown doll by making the following unsolicited statement: " I burned my face and made it spoil." A seven-year-old northern light child went to great pains to explain that he is ac­ tually white but: "I look brown because I got a suntan in the summer."