Signature Assessment #2
pandrews190823
RS6539SampleProposalviaRubricAssessment-1.pdf
Three-Way Stop Safety: An Observational Investigation 1
Line1 THREE-WAY STOP SAFETY: AN OBSERVATIONAL INVESTIGATION (3 Pts)
Line2 Kenneth Edward Scott (1 Pt)
Line3 Response to Request for Proposal (1 Pt)
Line4 AmU – RFP – JCURD12C#1 (1 Pt)
Line5 Submitted in Fulfillment of RS6539 Research and Evaluation (1 Pt)
Line6 “Research Proposal” (1 Pt)
Line7 Amridge University (1 Pt)
Line8 Submitted: 17 July 2525 (1 Pt)
Line9 (3 Pts)
* Graphical
Image Associated
with Your
Proposal
Source: Dreamstine (https://www.dreamstime.com/photos-image s/way-stop.html)
Line10 ABSTRACT: (7 Pts)
[Actual in Sample =179 Words: Proposal Requirement: >100 and <200]
As one safety measure among many in the cities across this nation, three-way, or all-stop
intersections, perform a very unique service to the safety of the citizens who live in these
neighborhoods and drive on the roadways and highways of our cities and states (omitting Inter-
state traffic). For example, according to the U.S. Department of Transportation (2009, p.2),
“approximately 72 percent of fatal crashes occur at unsignalized intersections. Most often, the
cause of the crash can be attributed to a driver failing to yield the right of way.” One method,
therefore, to attempt to create safety at intersections is to install various types and methods of stop
signs. Consequently, this study proposes to investigate a three-way, all-stop intersection by
conducting observations over a 30-day time span at random hours of each day. The Principal
Investigator will use digital methods to record “stop methodologies” of vehicles studied. No driver
or passenger data will be utilized in this proposed study. The purpose in this investigation is to
capture actual data to analyze and report safety practices via measured observations in real-time.
C O
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Three-Way Stop Safety: An Observational Investigation 2
Table of Contents [5 Points]
Cover Page .............................................................................................................................1
Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................2
Proposal Introduction .............................................................................................................3
Figure 1: Distracted Driving Major Cause of Driving Fatalities ...................................4
Methods, Materials, and Manpower ......................................................................................5
Prior Literature ................................................................................................................5
Methods...........................................................................................................................6
Table 1. Methods of the Research Proposal. .............................................................6
Table 2. Proposed Collection Instrument via Observation Methodology. ...............7
Materials .........................................................................................................................8
Table 3: Materials of the Research Proposal ...........................................................8
Manpower .......................................................................................................................9
Table 4: Manpower of the Research Proposal ........................................................9
Conclusion .............................................................................................................................10
Sources ...................................................................................................................................11
Appendices .............................................................................................................................13
1. Investigating Driver Behavior at Minor-Street
Stop-Controlled Intersections in Qatar. ......................................................................13
2. Increasing motorist compliance and caution at stop signs ..........................................13
3. Supporting Graphic .....................................................................................................14
Three-Way Stop Safety: An Observational Investigation 3
Proposal Introduction [10 Points]
Highway safety is a concern for all licensed drivers on the streets and highways of our
nation, from small towns to large metropolises. While the National Safety Council (2020) cited
38,800 traffic fatalities in 2019, they also suggested methods to reduce these tragedies. One of the
most profound and definitive recommendations was to drive attentively. For this proposal, driving
attentively pertains to how motorists give attention to stop signs, per se, a specific three-way, all-
stop intersection in Montgomery, Alabama. (The location will remain anonymous to protect the
identity of motorists). One of the focal purposes of stop signs is best identified by the Portland
Bureau of Transportation, PBOT (2020): “What is the purpose of a stop sign? The Portland Bureau
of Transportation oversees the placement and installation of stop signs to provide for the safe,
sustainable and efficient movement of people and goods. Safety is the primary factor of
consideration in stop sign placement” (p.1). Of specific intent in this proposal is to observe an
actual 3-Way, All-Stop intersection to measure and gage how drivers consider ‘safety as a primary
factor’ when they approach, establish a form of ‘stopping’, and measure these events over the 30-
day data capture process.
This proposal intends to conduct research as follows:
1. The PI will observe traffic flow for 30-days, at alternate times, and various intervals of
time to ensure that random data are collected to avoid the skewing of data in one
direction to influence findings via bias or violate sampling methods of research;
2. The data patterns will be: 1) full-stop; 2) rolling-stop; 3) no-stop; 4. Rolling-or-no-
stops, will be based on the perception of the PI as to the variance between them. For
example, full-stop is based on a complete stop in motion; rolling-stop is the near
cessation of motion, then forward progress; no-stop appears to be no attempt to stop;
3. The data collection process will conclude after 30-days, with the processing of the data
in various forms to inform the interested reviewers of the findings, issues, notable
traffic patterns, and whether type of vehicle was significant or otherwise;
4. These findings will be processed, written in a report, and submitted to the MPD as a
courtesy of a citizen providing first-hand traffic patterns at a specific intersection.
The cost of traffic accidents, inclusive of repair, injuries, death, medical services, and other
factors is staggering. For example, the National Safety Council (2020), stated that the three most
Three-Way Stop Safety: An Observational Investigation 4
dangerous causes of fatalities on the road are: 1) alcohol; 2) speeding, and 3) distracted driving. In
fact, Figure 1, indicates just how dangerous distracted driving can be.
Figure 1. Distracted Driving Major Cause of Driving Fatalities
Source: National Safety Council (2020): https://www.nsc.org/road-safety?safety-top%5bics=fatality-estimates.
When considering costs, Injury Facts (2020) noted that medical assistance injuries in
motor-vehicle accidents totaled 4.5 million in 2018, and injury costs were estimated to be an
alarming $445.6 billion in costs. Moreover, each crash that resulted in a death costs approximately
$1 million per death, whereas each crash injury had an economic expense of $78,000 per non-fatal
injury. How does this data fit into this proposed study? Stop-sign intersections are inherent within
the totality of driving statistics and, therefore, this study will add to the body of knowledge
regarding the actions of drivers at one specific three-way stop intersection.
Finally, the subsequent proposal outcome report, will be provided to Community Leaders
of the neighborhood where this intersection is located, for the sole purpose of Data-Driven
Informed Decision Making (DDIDM) so that community meetings might address and request the
cooperation of local drivers to enhance the ‘safety of all concerned as a primary factor’ of
community responsibility. Stated differently, the data that are analyzed and reported might save a
life or reduce injury or vehicle costs from such crashes, not to mention the critical importance to
driver and pedestrian safety.
Three-Way Stop Safety: An Observational Investigation 5
Methods, Materials, and Manpower [45 Points Total]
Prior Literature [12 Points]
It might be assumed that traffic habits are ingrained, and therefore, not easily changed.
However, a study by Austin, Hackett, Gravina, and Lebbon (2006) suggested that intervention
methods were causal in nature, and the data of the study indicated a change from 13% of drivers
stopping at a stop sign to an increase of 52% who stopped as a result of the intervention
methodology. With this study in mind, the purpose of this research proposal is to study the stop
rates and habits of drivers at a certain three-way, all-stop intersection (omitting intervention).
Moreover, research in the use of stop signs has a lengthy history, due to statistics which
indicate crashes, injuries, fatalities, and staggering cost (nhtsa.gov, 2020). The details of these
incidents can be found as part of the Public Domain information for research, to support this
present study and to bring validity and reliability to the background baseline that the research to
be conducted has merit for the project to be funded and/or approved (Van Houten & Redding,
2001; Hackett, Gravina & Lebbon, 2006; Shaaban, Wood & Gayah, 2017; nhtsa.gov, 2020;
radford.edu, Spring, 2006).
Specifically, within the overall scheme of traffic safety measures and research, stop-sign
intersections play a major role in controlling traffic flow at key locations in neighborhoods, city
streets, schools, high-pedestrian intersections, and so forth. In one study by Hallmark, Goswamy,
& Pawlovich (2018), it was suggested that “stop sign violations accounted for about 70% of
crashes” in four cities in a study by Retting et al (2003) who investigated crashes at stop-controlled
intersections.
In terms of valid and reliable research, studies, reports, and national safety measures, to
review the background data and reports lends considerable credibility to conducting this study.
This proposal, consequently, will conduct an investigation of the stop practices of drivers and
report those findings in the research report from this proposal. Those findings, with regards to
similar studies, assumes that the outcomes of this proposal will indicate similar findings associated
with similar studies. In other words, this study is an application of the assumptions and prior
literature on the subject under consideration in this proposal, and therefore, expectations of the
outcomes of this study are anticipated to fall within the body of research for stop-sign practices by
drivers who “randomly and securely participate” in this investigation.
Three-Way Stop Safety: An Observational Investigation 6
Methods [11 Points]
This section of the research proposal will address, succinctly, the items which the PI will
include as part of the methods to conduct the research. See Table 1.
Table 1. Methods of the Research Proposal.
Item Title Description/Application of Research Proposal
Observation Methodology to unobtrusively collect the data for the study; this
method will observe vehicles at random times, and record the
activities of the drivers at the noted three-way, all-stop intersection.
Research Design The study is designed to locate a secure station from which the PI
might observe drivers, from an undisclosed location that will ensure
his unobstructed view of the intersection and his view of the drivers;
from this location, he will be able to easily capture and record the
“stop actions” of drivers during each random collection time.
Data Security The data will be recorded on paper for the ease of field-collection
of the data. Once the data has been recorded, it will be digitized and
stored in a secure off-line external USB drive for access and
processing to conduct the numerical data (Quantitative) analysis.
Collection Instrument The collection instrument, a “manual recording instrument”, is
based on the methodology of observing the driver, recording the
driver’s behavior at the three way stop intersection, and
documenting those actions. For example, if the driver does not
attempt to stop, that will be recorded as a Non-Stop, e.g., running a
stop sign at a posted and legal operating intersection. Driver
behavior will determine how the PI records the actions of the driver
at the posted three-way, all-stop intersection clearly posted with
Bold Red Stop Signs at each stop line, clearly marked.
Type of Methodology This study will be using a Quantitative Methodology via numerical
values which signify the type of action demonstrated by the driver.
See Table 2.
Institutional Research
Board (IRB)
While the identity of human subjects will not be used directly to
respond to this study, because there are human subjects included in
the vehicles and to observe the methods of anonymity, random
collection and sampling methods, and to protect the identity of those
who “participate by proxy”, yes… this study will be submitted to
the IRB and actions followed accordingly.
Replication This study can be considered similar to other studies in the domain
of highway safety, particularly at stop sign intersections. Variances
apply, and this study will look at similar studies to assess the
similarities and differences between this study and related studies.
Three-Way Stop Safety: An Observational Investigation 7
Table 2. Proposed Collection Instrument via Observation Methodology.
Date: Hours of Observation & PI on Station:
⃝ CAR
⃝ SUV
⃝ TRUCK
⃝ Full-stop
⃝ Rolling-Stop
⃝ No-Stop
⃝ CAR
⃝ SUV
⃝ TRUCK
⃝ Full-stop
⃝ Rolling-Stop
⃝ No-Stop
⃝ CAR
⃝ SUV
⃝ TRUCK
⃝ Full-stop
⃝ Rolling-Stop
⃝ No-Stop
⃝ CAR
⃝ SUV
⃝ TRUCK
⃝ Full-stop
⃝ Rolling-Stop
⃝ No-Stop
⃝ CAR
⃝ SUV
⃝ TRUCK
⃝ Full-stop
⃝ Rolling-Stop
⃝ No-Stop
⃝ CAR
⃝ SUV
⃝ TRUCK
⃝ Full-stop
⃝ Rolling-Stop
⃝ No-Stop
⃝ CAR
⃝ SUV
⃝ TRUCK
⃝ Full-stop
⃝ Rolling-Stop
⃝ No-Stop
⃝ CAR
⃝ SUV
⃝ TRUCK
⃝ Full-stop
⃝ Rolling-Stop
⃝ No-Stop
⃝ CAR
⃝ SUV
⃝ TRUCK
⃝ Full-stop
⃝ Rolling-Stop
⃝ No-Stop
⃝ CAR
⃝ SUV
⃝ TRUCK
⃝ Full-stop
⃝ Rolling-Stop
⃝ No-Stop
⃝ CAR
⃝ SUV
⃝ TRUCK
⃝ Full-stop
⃝ Rolling-Stop
⃝ No-Stop
⃝ CAR
⃝ SUV
⃝ TRUCK
⃝ Full-stop
⃝ Rolling-Stop
⃝ No-Stop
⃝ CAR
⃝ SUV
⃝ TRUCK
⃝ Full-stop
⃝ Rolling-Stop
⃝ No-Stop
⃝ CAR
⃝ SUV
⃝ TRUCK
⃝ Full-stop
⃝ Rolling-Stop
⃝ No-Stop
⃝ CAR
⃝ SUV
⃝ TRUCK
⃝ Full-stop
⃝ Rolling-Stop
⃝ No-Stop
⃝ CAR
⃝ SUV
⃝ TRUCK
⃝ Full-stop
⃝ Rolling-Stop
⃝ No-Stop
Legend: Vehicles will be numerically identified in the statistical analysis as: [Group - Vehicle. 1.
Car; 2. SUV; 3. Truck]. [Group – Stop Method. 1 Full-stop; 2. Rolling-Stop; 3. No-Stop.] PI
perceptions via comments will be included to enhance the quality of the data collected. No
driver of passenger descriptors will be used at any time. Crashes will be discussed, if applicable.
Three-Way Stop Safety: An Observational Investigation 8
Materials [11 Points]
This section of the research proposal will address, succinctly, the items which the PI will
include as part of the materials to conduct the research. See Table 3.
Table 3. Materials of the Research Proposal.
Item Title Description/Application of Research Proposal
Software Usage The digital system used will be Microsoft Windows 10, with
PowerPoint and Excel to prepare the proposal, report, presentation,
and calculate basic statistics for discussion and outcomes of the
collected raw-data.
Statistical Application Due to the basic nature of the data to be collected, Microsoft Excel will
be used to perform statistical calculations for this proposal and
subsequent report/presentation. However, should p-value and other
comparative “statistically significant” outcomes be needed, SPSS or
other software will be utilized.
Cost for this Project Minimal costs, to be an expenditure of the PI, are assumed, i.e., paper,
toner, copies, etc. Long-term, if this report were to become of interest,
third-parties might like to have a “Professional Copy” of the report, at
which time, costs might become a factor.
Collection Instrument
(See Table 1)
The collection instrument, a “manual recording instrument”, is based
on the methodology of observing the driver, recording the driver’s
behavior at the three way stop intersection, and documenting those
actions. For example, if the driver does not attempt to stop, that will
be recorded as a Non-Stop, e.g., running a stop sign at a posted and
legal operating intersection. Driver behavior will determine how the
PI records the actions of the driver at the posted three-way, all-stop
intersection clearly posted with Bold Red Stop Signs at each stop line,
clearly marked.
Timeline This proposal, initially, is scheduled for a 30-day collection window.
The purpose in the 30-day sample is random and has no bearing on
other research or factors. Should the sample size prove too low for data
validity and reliability and robustness of the data, the timeline could
be extended.
Data Integrity and
Safe-Storage of Same
Because no human subjects will be directly involved (identification of
participants), the data collected will be of such a nature that no means
to identify individual owners of vehicles will be possible. Therefore,
to assume even the slightest misuse of the data, all data will be in the
control of the PI and stored in a safe location for a period of 12 months.
Miscellaneous
Considerations for this
Proposal
Other materials may be needed, ad hoc, but any additions to this stated
proposal will be included in the report as an Addenda item to ensure
that no individual will be identified, so that all data fulfills the rules of
proper research, such as anonymity, random sampling, etc. Should
changes occur, the committee/team/Board will be notified in writing
ASAP.
Three-Way Stop Safety: An Observational Investigation 9
Manpower [11 Points]
This section of the research proposal will address, succinctly, the items which the PI will
include as part of the manpower to conduct the research. See Table 4.
Table 4. Manpower of the Research Proposal.
Item Title Description/Application of Research Proposal
Principal Investigator (PI) The Principal Investigator, or PI, for this proposed investigation
will be Kenneth Scott, EdD. He is an educator, and is conducting
this study to contribute to the safety of the citizens in the city in
which he resides.
Participants The participants in this proposed study will be local drivers that
utilize this three-way, all-stop, intersection. They will not be
notified of their participation, as they are NOT identified by any
means whatsoever in this study. No images, tags, or other
information will be used in noting stop-sign trends in this study.
There will be no use of identification in terms of gender, race, age,
height, weight, or color of vehicle, make/model of vehicle, or any
other discriminating data collected to identify the driver and/or
passengers in the vehicles. ONLY the stop methods are observed
and data collected (See Table 2).
Participant variables that
impact identification
(See Participants in Table 4)
Qualifications of the PI,
and any CO-PI to be
identified.
Only the PI will be conducting this study, with no CO-PI expected
to join the study (should this change, notification will be submitted.)
The qualifications of the PI are: past research, publications,
proficient in Excel and SPSS, and MS Word applications to produce
the proposal, report and presentation; experienced in collecting data
in various methodologies; and other experienced research modes.
Incentives No incentives will be used in this study.
Associated Personnel to
support and/or help
develop this study.
It is not anticipated that anyone other than the PI will be involved
in this study. No research-assistants or part-time/full-time
individuals are expected or anticipated in the outcomes of this
proposal and/or report and/or presentation (or submissions to a
Peer-Reviewed Journal for possible publication.)
Other Manpower Issues At present, there are no other known or expected manpower issues
to be included. If this changes, the committee/team/Board will be
notified in writing ASAP.
Three-Way Stop Safety: An Observational Investigation 10
Conclusion
As noted in this proposal, the purpose is to contribute to the overall statistical body-of-
knowledge regarding stop sign practices by drivers at a local intersection, thereby, correlating
findings with precedent and current research. It is anticipated that the outcomes will lend this
proposal to prepare a quality research report and presentation, replete with data-tables, graphics,
charts, and details of the findings.
In conclusion, it is expected that outliers may be present, and if these occur, those will be
explained in detail so that the central tendencies of this proposal will remain valid and reliable.
Three-Way Stop Safety: An Observational Investigation 11
Sources:
Austin, J., Hackett, S., Gravina, N., and Lebbon, A. (2006, Spring). The effects of prompting and
feedback on drivers’ stopping at stop signs. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 39(1),
117-121.
Dreamstime (2020). Way Stop Stock Photos. Retrieved October 27, 2020, from
https://www.dreamstime.com/photos-images/way-stop.html.
Hallmark, S., Goswamy, A., & Pawlovich, M. (2018, February). Safety effectiveness of stop-sign
beacons—A cross sectional study. Tech Brief, Iowa State University, Institute for
Transportation, pp. 1-6.
Injury Facts. (2020). Motor vehicles. Retrieved, November 1, 2020, from
https://injuryfacts.nsc.org/motor-vehicle/overview/introduction/.
National Safety Council. (2020). Motor vehicle deaths estimated to have dropped 2% in 2019.
Retrieved, October 27, 2020, from https://www.nsc.org/road-safety/safety-topics/fatality-
estimates.
National Safety Council. (2020). Safety on the Road. Retrieved, November 1, 2020, from
https://www.nsc.org/road-safety?safety-top%5bics=fatality-estimates.
nhtsa.gov. (2020). 2019 fatality data show continued annual decline in traffic deaths. Retrieved
October 29, 2020, from https://www.nhtsa.gov/press-releases/2019-fatality-data-traffic-
deaths-2020-q2-projections.
Portland Bureau of Transportation. (2020). What is the purpose of a stop sign? Retrieved,
October 27, 2020, from https://www.portlandoregon.gov/transportation/article/594876.
radford.edu. (2006, Spring). Lab assignment: Naturalistic observation. Retrieved October 29,
2020, from
https://wowway.net/search/index.php?q=research+and+studies+associated+with+stop+si
gns&context=search.
Retting, R.A., Weinstein, H., & Soloman, M. (2003). Analysis of motor-vehicle crashes at stop
signs in four US cities. Journal of Safety Research, 34(5), 485-489.
Shaaban, K., Wood, J., and Gayah, V. (2017, January). Investigating driver behavior at minor-
street stop-controlled intersections in Qatar. Transportation Research Record Journal of
the Transportation Research Board, 2663, 109-116.
Three-Way Stop Safety: An Observational Investigation 12
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. (2009, November). STOP
Signs. Issue Briefs, 1-2.
Van Houten, R., & Retting, R. (2001, February). Increasing motorist compliance and caution at
stop signs. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34(2):185-93
Three-Way Stop Safety: An Observational Investigation 13
APPENDIX
1. Investigating Driver Behavior at Minor-Street Stop-Controlled Intersections in Qatar.
Khaled Shaaban, Jonathan S. Wood, Vikash V. Gayah. First Published January 1,
2017 Research Article, https://doi.org/10.3141/2663-14.
Abstract
Stop-controlled intersections are dangerous locations in which drivers must negotiate conflicts
between traffic streams. This study examined driver stopping compliance at minor-street stop-
controlled intersections in Qatar. Several variables that may influence driver behavior when
approaching a stop sign were considered—including age, gender, driver heritage differences,
vehicle type, presence of an approaching vehicle or a pedestrian, peak and nonpeak hours,
weekday versus weekend, and residential versus commercial land use. Binary and ordinal
logistic regression models were developed to describe driver stopping behavior as functions of
these characteristics. Results indicated an alarmingly low compliance rate with minor-street
stop signs. Generally, results indicated that male drivers, young drivers, and SUV drivers are
less likely to come to a complete stop at these locations. Results also revealed that drivers are
more likely to ignore the stop sign when they notice a vehicle or pedestrian approaching and
most likely to beat the approaching vehicle or pedestrian through the intersection and reduce
intersection-related delay. These findings raise a major safety concern and indicate aggressive
driving tendencies. Potential countermeasures include increasing police enforcement, initiating
traffic safety campaigns (e.g., targeting the higher risk drivers identified in the results), and
improving the visibility of stop signs using different measures, such as larger and additional
stop signs, “Stop Ahead” advance traffic control signs, and enhanced pavement markings.
2. Van Houten, R., & Retting, R. (2001, February). Increasing motorist compliance and
caution at stop signs. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 34(2):185-93
Abstract
This study evaluated strategies to improve motorist compliance and caution at three stop-sign-
controlled intersections with a history of motor vehicle crashes. The primary intervention was
a light-emitting diode (LED) sign that featured animated eyes scanning left and right to prompt
drivers to look left and right for approaching traffic. Data were scored from videotape on the
percentage of drivers coming to a complete stop and the percentage of drivers looking right
before entering the intersection. Observational data were collected on the percentage of right-
angle conflicts (defined as braking suddenly or swerving from the path to avoid an intersection
crash). The introduction of the LED sign according to a multiple baseline across the three
intersections was associated with an increase in the percentage of vehicles coming to a complete
stop at all three intersections and a small increase in the percentage of drivers looking right
before entering the intersections. Conflicts between vehicles on the major and minor road were
also reduced following the introduction of the animated eyes prompt.
Three-Way Stop Safety: An Observational Investigation 14
3. Supporting Graphic
Source: U.S. Department of Transportation. (2007, p.13). Analysis of fatal motor vehicle traffic
crashes and fatalities at intersections, 1997-2004. National Highway Traffic Safety
Administration, pp. 1-109.
