History Essay

ANCIENT ROME TO THE BEGINNING OF EMPIRE

The Latins were an Indo-European speaking Italic people from central Europe who crossed the Alps around 1500 BCE and invaded Italy. Attracted by the warm climate, fertile land, they conquered the native people and settled in central Italy. On the seven hills overlooking the Tiber River, they founded the city of Rome on the Palatine Hill.

· The ancient city was built on 7 hills: Palatine, Aventine, Caelian, Capitoline (religious center), Esquiline, Quirinal, Viminal

· Note also that the Forum was a public meeting place, Comitium and Curia housed the citizens’ assembly and the Senate.

The legend: Romulus and Remus, twin brothers who were descendants of the gods, orphaned and raised by a she-wolf, founded the city of Rome in 753 BCE.

Life among the Latins

· Agricultural people: farming and cattle herding

· Maintained close family ties, with the father exercising absolute authority (concept of pater familias)

· Worshipped tribal gods (Jupiter the chief god; Mars, god of war, Neptune, god of the sea, Venus, goddess of love)

· Defended Rome against frequent attacks

· Cremated their dead

· 40 cities joined in the Alban League confederation an informal military alliance serving religious and political purposes.

· Plebeian men and men of families belonging to the gentes (clans) participated in the curia or village council

· Heads of households belonged to the Senate, selected kings – who were essentially religious leaders.

· Clientage was a way for patrician and plebeian families to extend their power

Traditional Roman values and legends/myths

· Practicality, courage, hard work, honor

· Simplicity and steadfastness (tenacity?)

· Cincinnatus, Horatius, Romulus & Remus, Aeneas, Lucretia

Western Mediterranean to 509 BCE

· These people experienced civilization later than the Egyptians, Mesopotamian, and Greeks.

· Around 800 BCE Phoenician traders and colonists established a chain of trading posts along the coast of North Africa and on the islands of the Mediterranean. Carthage (near modern day Tunis, Tunisia) with its harbor and massive fortifications became the hub of the Phoenician western Empire. The Phoenicians were successful in integrating colonies into an empire because of commercial and agricultural wealth. They had a mercenary army, separated from the civil authority and which drew troops from many lands, so much of the political power was in the hands of the merchant aristocracy. Carthaginians adopted Phoenician gods such as Baal Hammon and Tanit. The sacrifice of first-born sons was a common practice.

· The Greeks also established colonies in Sicily and Italy around the same time spurring a rivalry between the two Mediterranean powers.

Rome: From the Etruscans to Independence 750-500 BCE)

750 BCE Rome was captured by its northern neighbors, the Etruscans. Contributions to the Latins/Romans were (included):

· Construction of buildings, roads, and city walls and made Rome a major city

· Making metal weapons

· Application of new military techniques including naval strength and military alliances. Around 474 BCE their fleet was destroyed and a period of decline followed.

· Etruscan religion brought underground gods and fertility cults

· Engineering – using hydraulic systems to drain swamps

· They made wine

· They had slaves who labored in mines and on farms to support aristocratic landlords.

· Women played a central role in urban political and public life.

· Two-fold division of Roman society sharpened class distinctions (patrician/plebeian)

· Political rights and military duty came to reside exclusively with the landowners (classis) whose richest and oldest members monopolized the new centuriate assembly. This reorganized political and military structure favored the conservative and wealthy patricians

· Class division between the patricians and plebeians grew when the plebeians were denied a political role.

· In 509 BCE the last Etruscan king: Tarquin the Proud, was overthrown and the Roman Republic established.

The Early Roman Republic

· Kings were replaced by consuls during the early period wherein a patrician led oligarchy dominated the Republic’s institutions and was characterized by the tradition of 2 men sharing the power of the office and the imperium the supreme power to command, administer law, and execute the condemned. Other key officials included the dictator who had absolute power to deal with crises, the praetors who administered justice and defended Rome in the absence of the consuls, quaestors (treasurers) and censors who negotiated public works contracts, filled Senate vacancies, and assessed taxes.

· The Roman republic at first was an aristocracy, with power in the hands of wealthy landowners – the patricians. Only patricians could serve as consuls and as members of the hereditary Senate which passed laws, approved appointments, and controlled foreign affairs. Largely excluded from government were the rest of the Roman people – mainly small farmers and city workers known as plebeians. Traditionally – the patricians traced their ancestries back to the founding of Rome, the plebeians – were considered new men.

· The patricians controlled political institutions through the cursus honorum. This antagonized the plebeian order which established an alternative political structure responsible for ruling the plebeians. The Plebeians refused to perform military service forcing the patricians to compromise by recognizing the plebeian claims to political power through the creation of the Council of the Plebs. This conflict between the patricians and plebeians is known as the Struggle of Orders

· The Plebeians clamored for democratic reforms – and over the course of 200 years they gained the right to elect tribunes empowered to protect plebeian interests by vetoing actions of the consuls and the Senate. The Plebeians also enacted laws in people’s assemblies, and gained the right to hold all government offices including that of consul and senator.

· The first plebeian gain is the codification of Roman law via the 12 Tables which prevented judges who were from the patrician order, from twisting unwritten laws to favor their own class.

· United by imperial ambition, plebeians and patricians both benefited from military campaigns that brought all of Italy under Roman control by 264 BCE. Successful military campaigns resulted in a distribution of lands to plebeians yet poverty and landlessness remain perennial problems in Rome. Gradually when the differences became strong again, the willingness to compromise faded, and Rome was beset by civil wars which destroyed the Roman republic.

Roman Control of Italy (340-270 BCE)

The Romans conquered the Italian peninsula: They overwhelmed the Latins, the Samnites, and Etruscans. They drove back the Gauls in the north, and they captured the Greek colonies in the south. It was able to conquer and unite Italy due to:

· Powerful armies of citizen soldiers who felt responsible to their republic. They did not fight for a despot, but for their own freedom, land, and government. They were well trained, disciplined, and the Roman legion was the most effective fighting force of the time.

· The Romans had the ability to move troops – the Apennine Mountains ran north-south through Italy and did not obstruct troop movements.

· Romans secured the friendship and allegiance of conquered people by granting them privileges of partial or full citizenship, gaining from these allies troops and support for Roman foreign policy.

Rome gains control of the Western Mediterranean (264-146 BCE)

· Rome’s chief rival was Carthage – the Phoenician founded city in North Africa which had become a power commercial empire. It took 3 wars to defeat Carthage, known as the Punic Wars

· The First Punic War (264-241 BCE) was fought chiefly on Sicily. Rome’s citizen soldiers eventually defeated the Carthaginian mercenaries, and Rome annexed Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. Both sides regroups for another round of hostilities, with Carthage acquiring part of Spain, and Rome consolidated its position by conquering the Gauls extending their rule north from the Po River to the Alps.

· The Second Punic War (218-201 BCE) saw Hannibal, Carthage’s general lead an army from Spain, across the Alps into Italy. He won numerous victories, climaxed by the Battle of Cannae, but he was unable to seize the city of Rome. Gradually the tide of battle turned to Rome’s favor and the Romans destroyed an army sent to reinforce Hannibal, conquered Spain, and invaded North Africa. Hannibal withdrew his army from Italy to go to defend Carthage, but at the Battle of Zama, was defeated. Carthage’s Spanish provinces were annexed by Rome, and Carthage was reduced to a second-rate power.

· Why did Rome win this second series of battles (Punic War II)?

· Superior wealth and military power

· Loyalty of most of its allies

· Rise of capable generals such as Fabius (the Delayer because he did not commit his troops to decisive battle in Italy believing that time would be in Rome’s interests so he merely harassed the enemy) and Scipio (called Africanus) because he triumphed over Hannibal in North Africa.

· The Third Punic War (149-146 BCE) was fought due to demagoguery of Cato, a Roman Senator who ended all his speeches, no matter the subject, with “Carthage must be destroyed”. Rome finally attacked and destroyed the city. In this particular case, you can see a clear example of what goes around, comes around! as the same thing will happen to Rome!)

Rome conquers the Eastern Mediterranean

· Following the Second Punic War, Rome conquered Macedonia including Greece, Syria, including most of southwestern Asia. Egypt recognizing Rome’s might, submitted to Roman domination of the Eastern Mediterranean. In 30 BCE Rome annexed Egypt.

Effects of the Mediterranean Conquests on Rome

· Introduction to Greek Culture.

· Romans enthusiastically accepted the advanced Hellenistic culture and shipped Greek treasures, books, statues, vases to Rome

· They enslaved educated Greeks to serve as tutors, actors, writers, and scientists

· They imitated Greek culture extensively

· Roman armies may have conquered Greece, but Greek culture conquered Rome

· Some Romans were able to acquire huge estates in the provinces and in Italy. Some of these public lands were seized illegally.

· Merchants and businessmen prospered by filling army contracts, buying booty, supplying slaves and by trading with the provinces

· Government officials in the provinces amassed huge fortunes at the expense of the subject people

· Hard work, discipline, and patriotism – Roman virtues, all but disappeared

· Conquests ruin small farmers and workers

· These small farmers and workers could not compete with the slave labor employed by huge estates and industry.

· Unable to pay their debts, farmers abandoned their lands and migrated to the cities where city workers suffered serious unemployment

· To gain the support of landless farmers and unemployed workers, Roman politicians sponsored free government programs of bread and circuses

· Conquests changed the character of the Army

· The small farmer had been the backbone of the Roman army and as he disappeared, the nature of the army changed. Citizen-soldiers, loyal to the state were replaced by professional soldiers fighting for pay and booty, loyal to their own commanders

By 146 BCE: Rome controlled Greece, Dalmatia, Italy, southern Gaul, Spain, North Africa, and dominated both Syria and Egypt. In the west Rome governed through former magistrates or proconsuls; in the East, Rome ruled through existing local rulers.

From Republic to Dictatorship

By the end of the second century BCE the common people were demanding economic and political reform. The aristocracy, which controlled the Senate, bitterly opposed measures that threatened their wealth and power. The spirit of compromise that was seen in early Rome was dead, peaceful reform failed. A series of civil wars ensued, with rival Roman generals battling for supremacy. The conflict, lasting more than 100 years, wrecked the Roman Republic and its many democratic features. In 27 BCE the Republic was replaced by an absolute monarchy: The Roman Empire

· The Gracci Brothers and attempts at peaceful reform (133-121 BCE)

· Tiberius Gracchus and his brother Gaius Gracchus, nobles who favored the common people were elected as tribunes

· They obtained laws in the people’s assembly that would recover lands wrongfully seized by the nobles and distribute these lands to the landless Romans

· Gaius further proposed to weaken the stronghold of aristocratic power, the Senate. Both brothers were killed in riots led by senatorial opponents of reform

Gee I wonder if we should worry about history repeating itself in our country today?

· Civil War: Marius vs Sulla

· Beginning in 86 BCE two generals: Marius (a popular leader) and Sulla (a senatorial leader) vied for control of Rome. Their clashes killed thousands of soldiers and civilians. Sulla prevailed and temporarily restored senatorial power

· Civil War: Caesar vs Pompey

· In 60 BCE Julius Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus (a wealth noble) formed the First Triumvirate. This alliance enabled the 3 men to dominate Rome. Caesar became a general and through military victories in Gaul won his army’s loyalty. His fame was spread by his book: Commentaries on the Gallic War.

· In 49BCE the Senate – fearful of Caesar’s popularity and power, ordered him to disband his army. He refused and taking an irrevocable step, crossed the Rubicon River and invaded the senatorial portion of Italy. Pompey’s senatorial army was defeated, and Caesar became dictator of Rome.

· Caesar planned to: establish a stable government, reform provincial rule, provide land for poor people, and beautify the city of Rome. He lacked time, in 44 BCE a group of conspirators envying his power and some hoping to restore the republic, assassinated Caesar at the Ides of March.

· Civil War: Octavian vs Antony

· Civil war broke out again after Caesar’s assassination

· Brutus and Cassius – the chief conspirators we defeated by forces led by Mark Antony and Caesar’s grand-nephew Octavian.

· In the final conflict for power, Octavian defeated Antony at the naval Battle of Actium 31 BCE. This battle of the Greek coast ended the era of civil wars. Octavian became the absolute ruler of the Roman Empire

The Effects on Republican Civilization

Simple values of piety, hard work, simplicity, and respect for authority led the Roman Republic to greatness

· But Roman institutions proved incapable (or unwilling) to change to meet the needs of a new imperial world power and to adapt to new values that accompanied Rome’s newfound wealth, and its exposure to Hellenistic culture

· Farmers which had formed the backbone of victorious legions through dedication to duty, preparation, and discipline were impoverished by constant warfare instead of enriching the farmer and soldier. Prolonged and distant wars prevented the farmer from tilling his soil and harvesting crops forcing the farmer-soldier to mortgage his land to aristocratic moneylenders. As the aristocrats got wealthier, the farmer-soldier lost his farm and thereby lost his major qualification for military service.

· The Roman family – governed by the pater familias. This absolute power governed property, could command the death of unwanted newborns, adoption of sons to be heirs. Slaves were not only property but considered as family members so even if freed carried obligation to the pater familias. Women lived under legal guardianship of fathers, then husbands, but exerted indirect power through household management, the moral education of children, and control of their doweries.

· The public role of Roman women increased as territorial expansion occurred. Fathers increasingly refused to transfer their authority over daughters to their sons in law and wives became independent following their fathers’ death. Marriage, an important factor in political alliances, often ended in divorce as fathers sought different political allies. Roman housing changed from simple buildings to larger more elaborate ones. The housing situation of the poor worsened as many of them lived in cramped, multi-stories apartment in the subdura.

· Roman Religion

· Household gods were responsible for every aspect of daily live. Both men and women had personal powers.

· Power, piety, and duty reinforced Roman virtues of order and authority.

· Public worship was the responsibility of state-sponsored colleges of aristocratic priests who were responsible for divination and for public sacrifices.

· Imperial conquest expanded the diversity of Roman deities as Romans gave foreign gods family characteristics and quickly absorbed them into their religious life.

· Some religions – like the cult of Dionysus (Bacchus) threatened traditional Roman values and thus were persecuted by Roman officials

· Remember: religious belief could be personal, but observation of the Roman religious traditions was expected as a civic duty.

· Newfound wealth and political corruption accompanied imperial expansion as many provincial officials were corrupt. Cato the Elder (mentioned in the Punic Wars above) often saw himself as the defender of traditional Roman values, while at the same time, took advantage of the newer, entrepreneurial opportunities provided by the changing times.

In the next portion of these lecture commentaries, we’ll look at Rome during its 500 years of Empire.

Roman Empire 27BC – 476CE

· Lasted about 500 years

· Was a military dictatorship

· Some emperors dominated the army, others were puppets of the army

· Some devoted time to Empire’s welfare, others sought personal advantages

· Only a few were qualified to meet imperial problems

Outstanding Emperors

· Augustus (27 BC – 14 CE) [aka OCTAVIAN]

· Accepted title Augustus meaning sacred mystery from the Senate

· He was considered just and capable

· He maintained peace

· Provided stable government

· Reformed provincial administration

· Established fair taxation

· Developed trade and industry

· Encouraged science, art, and literature

· Constructed many roads and buildings

· He transformed Rome from a city to bricks to a city of marble

· During his reign Jesus was born in the Roman province of Judea.

· This reign marked a 200 year period of peace and progress known as the PAX ROMANA

· Claudius (41-54 CE)

· Established Roman authority in the southern part of Britain

· Promoted public works in Italy

· Vespasian (69-79 CE)

· Dispatched army headed by his son Titus to Palestine to suppress Hebrew revolt, destroying Jerusalem, and expelled most Jews beginning what is known as the disaspora .

· Trajan (98-117 CE)

· Expanded the empire (through conquest) to its greatest territorial extent. The most important region – Dacia – which is modern day Romania

· Britain & Spain, and present day Morocco in the West, to Egypt and the Fertile Crescent in the East with the Danube River as a northern boundary.

· Hadrian (117-138 CE)

· Built defensive walls in northern Britain and in Central Europe to repel barbarian tribes (Germanic) trying to enter the empire

· Marcus Aurelius (161-180 CE)

· Conscientious and high-minded ruler concerned with the people’s welfare.

· A stoic philosopher, wrote the book Meditations.

· His death marks the end of the Pax Romana

· Diocletian (284-305 CE)

· Followed an period of incompetent rule and internal strife

· Divided the empire into East and West, each portion ruled separately

· Established a system of succession to the throne to prevent civil war

· His death was marked with renewed civil wars for control/power

· Last emperor to actively persecute Christians

· Constantine (312-337 CE)

· Reunited empire by military force

· Moved his capital from Rome to Byzantium (Constantinople)

· Issued the Edict of Milan (313) ending persecution of Christians (story of apparition (with this sign + conquer) and battle of Milvian Bridge)

· Converted to Christianity on his deathbed

The not-so great emperors of the Pax Romana:

Tiberius (14-37 CE)

Caligula (37-41 CE)

Nero (54-68 CE)

Titus (69-79 CE)

Domitian (81-96 CE)

Antoninus Pius (138-161 CE)

*Commodus (180-192 CE)

Why would these names be on this list?

Barbaric Tribes Destroy the Roman Empire

1. Germanic (Teutonic) Tribes – 1st – 4th C CE

primitive, warlike

lived in Central and eastern Europe

attracted to Roman empire by fertile land, wealth, and

advanced civilization

early efforts to enter empire were thwarted by Roman

troops

Rome permitted some Germanic people to settle in the

empire and enlisted some soldiers into its army

2. Huns (4th and 5th C CE)

savage invaders from central Asia

caused many Germanic tribes to flee into the empire

Attila (scourge of God) led Huns in ravaging the empire until the Roman/Germanic coalition at the Battle of Chalons (451 CE).

The Huns weakened Rome militarily and hastened its downfall

3. Germanic Tribes (4th and 5th C CE)

Full scale migrations of Germanic tribesmen into the empire could not be stopped by the Roman government

These tribes eventually established kingdoms in the empire: Visigoths in Spain, Ostrogoths in Italy, the Vandals in North Africa, Franks in Gaul, and the Angles and Saxons in Britain

4. In 476 CE Germanic tribes overthrew the last Emperor in Rome. This event ended the western Roman empire, but not the Eastern (Byzantine) empire.

Reasons for the Fall of the Roman Empire (West)

Roman weakness, not Germanic strength)

a. Political Reasons

Dictatorial government inefficient and corrupt, and did not command loyalty of the people

Vast empire with primitive transportation and communication, could not be governed efficiently from one central city

Rivalry over succession resulted in destructive civil wars

b. Economic Reasons

Small farmers had abandoned their lands to become workers on large estates. No longer independent, they lost the incentive to improve farming methods or increase production

Self-sufficiency of large estates hampered trade and curtailed industry, causing economic decline

Heavy often unjust taxation burdened the people and destroyed their ambition to work and progress

Widespread use of slaves in industry and agriculture caused great unemployment among the plebeians

c. Social Reasons

People interested mainly in luxury and survival

Ideals of patriotism, service, morality almost vanished

Sharp class distinctions existed = upper classes were wealthy and educated, lower classes were poor and ignorant

Cities initially centers of culture and industry declined as people fled to the rural regions

d. Military Reasons

Warlike spirit of early pagan Rome weakened by Christian teachings of peace and universal love

Roman armies included Germanic mercenaries of uncertain loyalty

The armies considering themselves as masters of state, not its servants, often chose the emperors and determined government policy

Roman Contributions to Civilization

1. The Pax Romana

a. For more than 200 years, Roman military might enforced in the Mediterranean world the Roman peace. This was a period of time of social cohesion on an international scale.

b. Trade and commerce expanded, arts and sciences thrived

c. Greco-Roman (classical civilization) reached everywhere in the empire.

2. Roman Law

a. Developed bodies of law on business matters, family relationships, individual rights, and international affairs.

b. Justinian, emperor at Constantinople 527-565 CE directed a codification of the Roman laws – Justinian’s Code, which influenced the legal systems of Western Europe and through Western Europe, the United States

c. Law was intended to be impartial and humane . Two of its principles: All are equal before the law, and, Accused persons are guaranteed legal protection. Forced confessions are invalid.

3. Architecture

a. Romans constructed military roads, aqueducts, bridges, and marble buildings – some are still in use today.

b. They used the arch, dome, and column effectively

c. The Coliseum a famous stone amphitheater was erected during the reign of Vespasian

4. Language

a. Latin is the root of the Romance languages: French, Italian, Portuguese, Spanish, Romanian

b. It is the source of perhaps ½ of the words in the English language

5. Literature

a. Cicero (106-43 BCE) – father of Latin prose wrote on ethical, religious, and political subjects including famous orations in defense of the Roman republic

b. Vergil (70-19 BCE) – wrote the epic poem The Aeneid) about the adventures of Aeneas whose descendants founded Rome. He extolled Rome’s greatness

c. Horace (65-8 BCE) – Odes poetry about every day life. He praised the early Roman virtues of simplicity, courage, and reverence

d. Seneca (3BC-65CE) – stoic philosopher, wrote essays on morals

6. Historical Writing

Livy (59BC-17CE) wrote an encyclopaedic history about Rome from its founding to the Augustan Age. He deplored the decay of early Roman virtues and the fall of the Republic

Plutarch (100 CE) compared Roman and Greek heroes in his book of biographies Parallel Lives

Tacitus (55-120 CE) wrote Germanica describing life among the Germanic barbarians

7. Science

Romans were practical – they specialized in sanitation, public health, and engineering. The research scientists of the Roman empire were generally – NON ROMAN

Galen (131-201 CE) a Greek physician who wrote books summarizing the ancient world’s medical knowledge. He performed experiments on the nervous and circulatory systems

Ptolemy (2nd century CE) Greek astronomer who taught erroneously that the earth was the center of the universe, and that the sun revolves about the earth. We know this is not true through the writings of men like Copernicus (16th C CE)