The Development of Experimental Psychology in Mexico

THE INSTRUMENTS IN THE FIRST PSYCHOLOGICAL LABORATORY IN MEXICO

Antecedents, Influence, and Methods

Rogelio Escobar National Autonomous University of Mexico

Enrique O. Aragón established the first psychological laboratory in Mexico in 1916. This laboratory was inspired by Wundt’s laboratory and by those created afterward in Germany and the United States. It was equipped with state-of-the art instruments imported from Germany in 1902 from Ernst Zimmermann who supplied instruments for Wundt’s laboratory. Although previous authors have described the social events leading to the creation of the laboratory, there are limited descriptions of the instru- ments, their use, and their influence. With the aid of archival resources, the initial location of the laboratory was determined. The analysis of instruments revealed a previously overlooked relation with a previous laboratory of experimental physiology. The influence of the laboratory was traced by describing the careers of 4 students, 3 of them women, who worked with the instruments during the first 2 decades of the 20th century, each becoming accomplished scholars. In addition, this article, by identifying and analyzing the instruments shown in photographs of the psychological laboratory and in 1 motion film, provides information of the class demonstrations and the experiments conducted in this laboratory.

Keywords: psychological laboratory in Mexico, psychology in Latin America, history of exper- imental psychology, National Autonomous University of Mexico, brass instruments

When Wundt established the first psycholog- ical laboratory in Leipzig in 1879, psychology took the crucial step toward becoming an ex- perimental science. Soon afterward, psycholog- ical laboratories resembling the one in Leipzig were established in many countries. In Latin America, for example, laboratories were created in Argentina, Chile, Mexico, and Brazil be- tween 1898 and 1923 (e.g., Ardila, 1986). These laboratories accompanied the first courses in

experimental psychology in the region and set the foundations for societies, institutes, and schools of psychology (Sánchez-Sosa & Val- derrama-Iturbe, 2001). In Mexico, for example, the history of the Faculty (Department) of Psy- chology of the National Autonomous Univer- sity of Mexico (UNAM) can be traced back to the establishment of the first psychological lab- oratory.

This article narrates the history of the first psychological laboratory in Mexico focusing on the scientific instruments in the laboratory, how they were used, and how their use affected the development of psychology in Mexico. It de- scribes how the psychological laboratory was related to a previous laboratory of experimental physiology in which instruments similar to those in the psychological laboratory were used. The influence of the psychological laboratory on the development of psychology in Mexico was determined by examining the careers of four students, three of them women, who used the instruments in the first courses of experi- mental psychology. Furthermore, an attempt was made to identify the instruments shown in

The author is indebted to Andy Lattal, Armin Stock, and Alicia Roca for their comments on previous versions of this article. This article was possible thanks to the staff of the Library and the Documentation Center of the Faculty of Psychology of UNAM, to Jesica Martínez Rosas and the staff of the Historical Archives of UNAM, to Rafael Malagón Becerril (Archive of the General Direction of Personnel of UNAM), and to Isabel Chong de la Cruz (Antique Repository and Special Collections, Central Li- brary, UNAM).

Correspondence concerning this article should be ad- dressed to Rogelio Escobar, Facultad de Psicología, Uni- versidad Nacional Autónoma de México. Av. Universidad 3004. Col. Copilco-Universidad. C.P. 04510. E-mail: [email protected]

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History of Psychology © 2014 American Psychological Association 2014, Vol. 17, No. 4, 296–311 1093-4510/14/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0038038

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the five known photographs of the laboratory and in one motion film, which are part of the collection of the Faculty of Psychology of UNAM. For some of these instruments, there is no historical evidence other than brief descrip- tions in the trade catalogs of the suppliers, most of them in German. By describing the instru- ments in the first psychological laboratory in México and analyzing their use and influence, this article attempts to extend the knowledge of the instruments and how laboratories were or- ganized around their use during the “brass in- strument era” of psychology, the period when the tradition of experimentation in psychology arose. Because most previous descriptions of the first psychological laboratory in Mexico are in Spanish (but see Colotla & Jurado, 1983; Sánchez-Sosa & Valderrama-Iturbe, 2001, for brief descriptions of the psychological labora- tory in Mexico in English), this article also attempts to broaden knowledge of the labora- tory in Mexico to non-Spanish-speaking psy- chologists.

The Psychological Laboratory in Mexico

The first psychological laboratory in Mexico was established in 1916 by Enrique O. Aragón1

in the National School of High Studies (ENAE) that, at the time, was part of the National Uni- versity of Mexico, now UNAM. This laboratory was mainly dedicated to course demonstrations but some basic and applied projects also were conducted (Aragón, 1939/1943). The instru- ments used in this laboratory arrived in Mexico 14 years earlier, at which time the National University of Mexico was not even estab- lished.2 These instruments were imported from Germany in 1902 under the government of Pres- ident Porfirio Diáz3 and were planned to be used in the courses of psychology in the National Preparatory School and the Normal School for Teachers (Informe leído por el presidente de la republica, 1902). Although these instruments were most likely requested by Ezequiel A. Chávez,4 there are no records of the use of the instruments until 1916.

By 1902, Chávez, considered consensually to be the first Mexican psychologist (see Baldwin, 1906; Díaz-Guerrero, 1976), was teaching ex- perimental psychology in the National Prepara- tory School. Based on his readings of James, Dewey, Ribot, Titchener, and Spencer, among

others, he prepared the courses that started in 1897, and convinced the school authorities of the importance of experimental psychology lab- oratories in Germany and the United States5

(see Álvarez Díaz de León, 2011). Chávez translated Titchener’s A Primer of Psychology (Titchener, 1902, 1904/1907) into Spanish and used it as a textbook for his courses. Aragón was a student in this course in 1897. It is unclear why there are no records of the use of the instruments in the courses in the National Pre- paratory School. One explanation is that the instruments never reached the Preparatory School. According to 19166 archival records, the instruments were assigned to the Normal School for Teachers, where demonstrations of psychological phenomena were not a priority, and the instruments thus remained in storage for several years. Furthermore, in 1903 Chávez, following the leadership of Justo Sierra,7 fo- cused on the project of creating the National University of Mexico.

It is worth mentioning that although it was suggested that James Mark Baldwin set up the psychological laboratory during his visits to Mexico (Kitson, 1953), the instruments were obtained 3 years before his first visit in 1905. Baldwin returned to Mexico to teach psychoso- ciology courses in 1910 and in 1913, but the instruments apparently were not used until 1916. Therefore, Baldwin’s contribution to the foundation of the laboratory in Mexico is un- clear (Gallegos, 1980, 1983). What is apparent is that Baldwin and Chávez had a close rela- tionship after Baldwin’s visits to Mexico (see, e.g., Baldwin’s dedication of his book, History of Psychology [1913], to Chávez).

According to Valderrama-Iturbe (2004), some of the instruments suffered from a lack of use and in 1914 were transferred to the National Preparatory School. There they were partially repaired by the head of the physics laboratory, Alberto S. Cardenas, who had experience re- pairing related instruments. Two years later, Aragón was selected to teach courses in Exper- imental Psychology at ENAE, which in 1910 had become part of the newly created National University of Mexico. The main purposes of ENAE, today the Faculty of Philosophy and Literature, were to develop research in special- ized fields and to train new researchers and teachers. Therefore, Aragón requested the equipment in 1916 for research and course dem-

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onstration8 and, thanks to the support of the head of the School, Miguel Schultz,9 he re- ceived those instruments on April 23, 1916.10

Further details of the location of the labora- tory are in order given some previous inaccurate descriptions (Curiel-Benfield, 1962; Jurado, 1983). Based on a series of reports of the con- cierge of ENAE,10,11, it was determined that the instruments were installed in two rooms in the ground floor of the building known as El Pala- cio de la Autonomía (Palace of the Autonomy), which is an emblematic building in the history of UNAM.

The Palace of the Autonomy is located in downtown Mexico City in the corner formed by Licenciado Verdad Street and República de Guatemala Street. It was built in 1890 and originally housed the Normal School for Teach- ers. In 1910, it housed ENAE and the main offices of the National University of Mexico. The building was renamed Palace of the Auton- omy in 2004 to commemorate that in 1929, in this building, the National University of Mexico became autonomous, thus gaining control over the curricula and the budget without interven- tion of the government.

The concierge of the Palace of the Auton- omy, Maclovio Vega, who reported daily inci- dents, on April 23, 1916, observed that the instruments for Aragón’s class arrived to the building on a moving truck:

At noon, a truck arrived carrying several drawers with apparatus and loose apparatus for the Psychology class. There was a large apparatus, two large tables, and a sort of cupboard with a large marble stone top. The apparatus were too big to place inside Classroom 3 so they were placed inside Classroom 410 (adapted and translated by the present author).

Some days later the concierge reported that the instruments were moved to the ground floor and occupied two rooms previously used by the library of public instruction and the bulletin of public instruction.

The location of the laboratory was important for, at least, three reasons: The building was originally used for the National School for Teachers; therefore, it was probably considered a place in which teachers, a profession accept- able for women at the time, were educated. The second was that the laboratory shared location with the offices of the National University of Mexico. When the laboratory was inaugurated in 1916, a conference for the authorities of the

university, demonstrating how the instruments were used, was scheduled. Third, the centrally located building was used to the advantage of the Mexican army during the Mexican revolu- tion. According to the concierge reports, the classes were often interrupted or cancelled be- cause of military exercise.10 These continuous interruptions could have determined that, during the first years, the laboratory was mainly used for class demonstrations. Around 1935, the lab- oratory and ENAE were relocated to the colo- nial style building known as Casa de los Mas- carones (house of the masks; Ruiz-Gaytan, 1954). Afterward, the location of the laboratory alternated between the Palace of the Autonomy and Casa de los Mascarones (Curiel-Benfield, 1962; Ruiz-Gaytan, 1954). These changes were probably the origin of a confusion of the initial location of the laboratory.

Aragón prepared the instruments11 and the electrical connections (many of the instruments operated on DC) and lectured for the first time using some of the instruments on June 9, 1916.12 After the instruments were properly set up, on October 27, 1916, a conference intended for the authorities of the University, took place.13 Three newspaper articles were pub- lished describing some of the demonstrations that were presented (Conferencia, 1916; Cre- ación y funcionamiento del gabinete, 1916; Cre- ación y funcionamiento del g., 1916). An Eng- lish translation of one of the press articles from El Nacional is shown in the Appendix. The description of the experiments, which is similar in the three articles, was important for identify- ing some of the instruments and their use in the laboratory.

Antecedents of the Laboratory

Before Aragón was assigned to teach exper- imental psychology classes, he graduated as a physician in 1904. In 1905, he was in charge of the laboratory of medical physics and medical natural science in the National School of Med- icine, where he was responsible for preparing the instruments for demonstrations (Menéndez- Menéndez, 1994). It is unclear how Aragón started working with instruments, but most likely his interest was piqued by his courses on anatomy and experimental physiology, taken when he was a medical student from 1897 to 1904.14

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In 1900, several instruments from France and Germany arrived at the laboratory of experi- mental physiology at the National School of Medicine and were set up by Daniel Vergara- Lope,15 a physician specialized in experimental physiology (Cházaro-García & Rodríguez de Romo, 2006). In 1896, Vergara-Lope, largely inspired by Claude Bernard’s work, visited lab- oratories in Europe where he collected informa- tion that enabled him to organize his own (Ver- gara-Lope, 1897a, 1897b). The instruments, which would have been familiar to experimen- tal psychologists of the time, like cardiographs, pletysmographs, inductoriums (induction coils), and several kymographs, were used for demon- strations and research (La escuela de medicina, 1900).

It is unclear whether Aragón assisted Ver- gara-Lope in the experimental physiology classes, but his being named assistant in the laboratory of medical physics and of history of medical science, only 1 year after graduation, suggests that he had experience working with instruments. In addition, during these years Aragón wrote and published the notes that he had taken during his psychology courses with Chávez (Aragón, 1902) in which Chávez em- phasized the importance of Wundt’s physiolog- ical psychology. Aragón noted that his physiol- ogy and anatomy classes in the National School of Medicine were important for supplementing the notes that were the basis for his book. Al- though Vergara-Lope’s laboratory of experi- mental physiology is an antecedent to Aragón’s laboratory, this relation was overlooked in pre- vious articles describing the foundation of the laboratory of experimental psychology in Mex- ico (but cf. Kagelmann & León, 1992).

Most likely because of his experience in the experimental physiology laboratory, Chávez asked Vergara-Lope to replace him as professor of psychology at the National Preparatory School in 1903 (Díaz y de Ovando, 1972, p. 235; Parra, 1910). Vergara-Lope only replaced Chávez temporarily and, in 1906, the position of professor of psychology was granted to Aragón.

Aragón started his laboratory courses on ex- perimental psychology in the National Prepara- tory School in 1908 (Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, 1942) using, as Chávez did before, Titchener’s A Primer of Psychology (Titchener, 1902, 1904/1907) as a textbook, but the lack of

precision instruments was a drawback (Díaz y de Ovando, 1972, pp. 531–532). These events, nevertheless, represented an important turning point in the history of psychology in Mexico. Following Wundt’s concepts, Chávez took psy- chology from its initial place in philosophy and relocated it as an experimental science, where it was adopted by medical doctors interested in physiology, anatomy, and human behavior, like Vergara-Lope16 and Aragón.

Influence of the Laboratory

Similar to other laboratories following Wun- dt’s tradition, in the psychological laboratory in Mexico, demonstrations of psychological phe- nomena were combined with physiological psy- chology courses. The topics of theses written by the students in the laboratory during its first years suggest, however, that these courses in- cluded numerous discussions of evolutionary theory and psychometrics. The combination of Wundt’s methods and evolutionary theory, which characterized functional psychology in the United States, served to train the first gen- eration of psychologists in Mexico. For deter- mining the importance of the laboratory in the history of psychology in Mexico the careers of students that were trained, at least partially, in Aragón’s laboratory, were analyzed.

David P. Boder

In 1919, Boder, born in Latvia in 1886, ar- rived in Mexico. After having studied for 6 months with Wundt and for 5 years with Bech- terev (Rosen, 2010), he enrolled in Aragón’s psychology courses (Jurado, Colotla, & Gal- legos, 1989). Some months later, he was in charge of preparing and calibrating the instru- ments in the psychological laboratory. It is per- haps during this time that Boder was attracted to psychological instruments, an attraction that would be useful throughout the rest of his ca- reer. According to Jurado et al., Boder started teaching in ENAE in 1923, and at that time he also became the director of the first department of applied psychology (Psychotechnics Depart- ment) created by the Government of Mexico City. Two years later, Boder translated and adapted the Binet-Simon intelligence test into Spanish. Boder also translated Freud’s The in- terpretation of dreams into Spanish in 1921.

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Boder moved to Chicago in 1926 and ob- tained his PhD at Northwestern University. He became a professor at the Lewis Institute (now the Illinois Institute of Technology) and from 1935 to 1940, he was the chair of its department of psychology and philosophy (Jurado et al., 1989). His interest in instrumentation was evi- dent in articles reporting designs of instruments to be used for psychological experiments (e.g., Boder, 1933). In Chicago, Boder founded the Psychological Museum in 1937 to house and display instruments used in psychological re- search. Although the museum closed in 1957 (Benjamin, 2009), it predated the creation of the Archives of the History of American Psychol- ogy that now houses some of the instruments acquired by Boder. In 1946, after World War II, Boder traveled to Europe and began a series of 130 interviews with the survivors of the Holo- caust using a wire recorder (Rosen, 2010). Ac- cording to Rosen, “his vocation as a psycholo- gist moved him to conceive the interviews, shaped the way he carried them out, and guided his analysis of them” (p. 22). A few years later Boder (1949) published his analysis of the 90 hours of audio recordings of those interviews.

Luz Vera

A notable aspect during the first years after the founding of Aragón’s laboratory is the cen- tral role of women as students and assistants. During the early 20th century in Mexico, not all professions were considered “suitable” for women, which was the case with scientific re- search. Teaching, on the other hand, was a socially accepted profession for women be- cause, as Zuñiga indicated (in Cano & Radkau, 1989) women “are sensitive,” and this trait is helpful in interacting with students. The belief that sensitivity and emotionality are traits rep- resentative of women was not only popular in Mexico, it was common in western societies at the time (see, e.g., Shields, 2007). One purpose of ENAE, as mentioned earlier, was to train specialized teachers. Therefore, women wishing combine rigorous extensive education with so- cially accepted careers as teachers attended ENAE. In subsequent years, it was a challenge for these women to be acknowledged as schol- ars and not only as teachers.

One notable example of an accomplished woman scholar was Vera, born in 1881, who

was a student at ENAE from 1916–1921. She obtained her degree as university professor17

specializing in psychology in 1921. This was the first degree as university professor granted by the National University of Mexico in the area of Philosophical Sciences and Art of Education (Menéndez-Menéndez, 1996). In 1922, she moved temporarily to the mountain region of Veracruz as a missionary teacher. That same year she became the director of the boarding school “Gabriela Mistral” and held the position until 1923 (Who’s who in Latin America, 1935). She thereafter returned to ENAE, where, after Boder departure, along with Zuñiga, be- came laboratory assistant in charge of preparing the instruments for classes. She remained Aragón=s assistant from 1931 to 1935. (García- García, 2013). Vera obtained a doctoral degree in 1934 with a dissertation titled Psychology of the heroic act. It was the first doctoral degree awarded to a student in the National University of Mexico for a topic in psychology.

After obtaining the doctoral degree, Vera be- came a professor and director of the Normal School for Teachers. García-García (2013) de- scribed that Vera was a professor of education at the Faculty of Philosophy and Literature (for- merly ENAE) of UNAM from 1937 to 1940, and then professor of psychology of education from 1943 to 1955. In 1928 she wrote the man- uals titled Aplicación del método natural para enseñar a los adultos a leer y escribir [Appli- cation of the Natural Method to teach adults to read and write], Indicaciones para emplear el método natural en la desanalfabetización de los adultos [Guidelines to use the natural method in the reduction of illiteracy]. Over several de- cades, Vera was active in the women’s suffrage movement (Tuñon, 2002) that ended in 1953 when the right to vote in all elections was granted to Mexican women.

Palma Guillén

Guillén, born in 1893, along with Vera was one of Aragón=s first students. She enrolled in Aragón’s courses from 1916 until the early 1920s (Valderrama-Iturbe, 2004). Guillén ob- tained her teacher degree from the Normal School for Teachers and became a teacher of Psychology, Logic and Literature. Her thesis, “Critique of the optimistic and pessimistic doc- trines of the infant soul,” presented at a confer-

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ence in 1917, was the first singled authored published article by a student from Aragón’s laboratory (Guillén, 1918). Guillén worked for Jose Vasconselos,18 the minister of education (Horan, 2013), on a massive reorganization of the Mexican education system after the Mexi- can revolution. Specifically, Guillén was in charge of organizing the libraries. In 1922, Vas- conselos contacted Gabriela Mistral19 and asked her to come to Mexico as an advisor to the effort to improve the education system. Guillén ac- companied Mistral during her stay in Mexico (Mistral & Guillén, 1966/1988), with the result that they established a long-lasting friendship. Mistral wrote about Guillén:

By the way, I was one day with a professor of the University that they assigned as my secretary, the only woman with effective scientific culture that I have met and who I ended up admiring, although her perspective at the beginning made her look insufferable to me. Her name is Palma Guillen. (Mistral, Barrios, & Vargas- Saavedra, 1988, p. 59, adapted and translated by the present author)

A few years later, in 1935 Guillén became the Mexican ambassador to Colombia and then to Denmark. She was the first Latin American woman to be appointed as an ambassador (Kiddle, 2013). According to Kiddle, the fact that she was a professor at the University was well received during her diplomatic work in Colombia and she received an honorary doctor- ate from the Universidad Libre [Free Univer- sity] in Bogota. In 1937, Guillén represented Mexico in the League of Nations, the forerunner of the United Nations.

Guadalupe Zuñiga

Zuñiga (born in 1898) was a key figure in the development of professional psychology in Mexico (Valderrama-Iturbe, Colotla, Gallegos, & Jurado, 1994). Zuñiga obtained her degree of Academic Professor specialized in General and Special Psychology from ENAE in 1922 (Menéndez-Menéndez, 1996). She later worked with Boder in the application of psychological tests in penitentiaries.

After Boder’s departure in 1926, the author- ities attempted to close the psychotecnics de- partment, which was created to organize the work in penitentiaries, but Zuñiga defended the work done by psychologists. As a result, a new project involving young offenders in the correc-

tional system was created. A nonjudicial court was created to develop a plan for working with each offender. Zuñiga was named a judge in this court and served for 21 years in this position. During her tenure, she developed new methods for training acceptable behavior and created a program that included psychotherapy. She also created a foundation that helped those young offenders that could not be sent to the correc- tional penitentiaries or to foster homes. She became the Director of Social Action in the Secretariat of Public Education in Mexico in 1953. As part of her responsibilities, she devel- oped a program that included the interdisciplin- ary work of various health professionals to di- agnose and treat problems associated with poor school performance.

Identification of Instruments in the Laboratory

This section describes the instruments in the psychological laboratory and analyzes their use. The instruments are shown in the five photo- graphs known of the psychological laboratory in Mexico. Also, some instruments were shown in a 13-min silent motion film recorded in 1941 showing experiments for demonstration pur- poses (Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, 1942). Some experiments in the film replicated those presented during the 1916 conference (Appen- dix). The photographs and the film belong to the collection of the Faculty of Psychology at UNAM. The film has not been mentioned in any of the articles consulted.

Different sources were used for identifying the instruments shown in the photographs and the motion film: the press articles alluded to above that described some instruments (Appen- dix), an inventory of electrical instruments from 1933 found by the author in Aragón’s file at the Archive of the Department of Personnel of UNAM,20 the descriptions of the instruments in Aragón’s writings and letters stored in the His- torical Archives of UNAM, a collection of pho- tographs and instruments of the Faculty of Psy- chology of UNAM, and the trade catalogs of several suppliers. Most of the catalogs from E. Zimmermann, C. H. Stoelting, and Marietta Ap- paratus Company, used for identifying the in- struments, are available online thanks to the Virtual Laboratory of the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science.

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The description of the instruments in archival resources suggests that the instruments in the laboratory were obtained mainly from two sup- pliers: During, 1902 from Ernst Zimmermann in Leipzig (who supplied instruments for Wundt’s laboratory [Gundlach, 2007]), and in 1918 and after 1922 from C. H. Stoelting in Chicago (formerly the Chicago Laboratory and Scale Company). Ruiz-Gaytan (1954) indicated that the instruments acquired during 1918 were bought from Germany, but because of the naval blockade during World War I, these instruments most likely were imported from Chicago. Al- though four of the five photographs are undated, one feature that suggests that they are from the period before 1922 is that the distinctive kymo- graphs from C. H. Stoelting are missing, and most of the instrument correspond to the ones described in Zimmermann’s catalogs.

Photograph: Class of Experimental Psychology

The photograph in Figure 1 shows the psycho- logical laboratory in 1918, apparently, during one of the classes imparted by Aragón (see Ruiz- Gaytan, 1954). Figures on the left, most likely students, are organized in two groups working with different instruments. Aragón, with his hand on a table, is looking toward the two men con- ducting an experiment on the back. Three female students are conducting some tests on the front table. From the analysis of other photographs found in previous articles, and in the collection of photographs of the Faculty of Psychology at UNAM, the woman preparing the instrument on the left appears to be Guadalupe Zuñiga and the woman writing on the right is Luz Vera. Behind Vera, looking directly at the camera is, presum-

Figure 1. Class of experimental psychology. The instruments identified in the photograph are numbered. The drawing from the manufacturer’s catalog was included with the corre- sponding number. (1) Fall delay chronometer, (2) contact pendulum, (3) instrument for the study of time perception, (4) color mixer, (5) Hering’s kymograph for continuous paper, (6) Helmholtz’s pendulum myograph, (7) probably an instrument for studying illusion of motion.

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ably, Palma Guillén (see section Influence of the laboratory for descriptions). They are using a fall delay chronometer (1). This instrument released a ball that made a distinctive sound when it touched the plate. The woman in the chair pressed the clamp in her hand to report when the ball hit the plate on the base.

A color mixer with clockwork (4) was used also during the demonstrations in 1916 (Appen- dix) and in the motion film to demonstrate an application of the Weber-Fechner law by vary- ing the proportion of white and black sections of the rotating disk and the perceived tones of gray (Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, 1942).

The kymograph (5) was an important instru- ment in the psychological laboratory and in the laboratory of experimental physiology that pre- ceded it. This model could be used with longer sections of paper than the kymographs with one cylinder.

Photograph: Enrique Aragón in the Laboratory

Figure 2 shows Aragón in the laboratory

posing next to a large Wundt perimeter. Al- though it is most likely the same room shown in Figure 1, the laboratory was entirely rear- ranged. Wundt perimeter was used to present visual stimulus at varying degrees relative to the participant’s field of vision. It was used in the laboratory for studying visual fields with different colors (Appendix). Another smaller perimeter (Foster’s perimeter) can be seen partially on the right (10). Other three photo- graphs of the laboratory are available and were useful for identifying the instruments, but, with the exception of an optical bench, the instruments in those photographs can be found also in Figures 1, 2, and 3; therefore, these photographs were not included in this review.

Instruments in the Motion Film

The 13-min motion film (Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, UNAM, 1942) contains 5-min footage of experiments for course dem- onstrations. The film is silent but brief de- scriptions in title cards preceded each of 13

Figure 2. Enrique Aragón standing in the laboratory. The format is the same used in Figure 1. (1) Color mixer, (2) Wundt’s split pendulum for complication studies, (3) du Bois- Reymond’s inductorium or induction coils, (4) ophtalmotrope, (5) universal stand with rounded holding, (6) universal stand, (7) magic lantern or projector, (8) Wundt’s perimeter, (9) instrument for studying mixtures of colors, (10) Foster’s perimeter.

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demonstrations. Eight still frames were ex- tracted from the film and are shown in Figure 3. Frame h shows a view of the laboratory that in 1941 was located at Casa de los Masca- rones.

Frames a and b show two settings for study- ing memory. A mnemometer (1) was used to present words at regular intervals in Frame a. In Frame b a rotation instrument or memory drum (3) was used. Standing next to the in- strument in Frame b is Daniel Nisenbaum, who repaired the instruments in 1931 and was in charge of preparing and calibrating them after 1933.

An experiment on reaction times (RTs) to visual, auditory and tactile stimuli is shown in Frame c. The visual stimulus was a small dot presented intermittently using a tachistoscope (not shown). An auditory stimulus was pre- sented using the fall chronometer (5; see also Figure 1), and tactile stimulation was applied with an aesthesiometer (not shown). The RTs to the three stimuli were recorded using a chronoscope (see Frame g). The laboratory was equipped with a Hipp chronoscope and a demonstration chronoscope (13), which had a larger dial and was designed for auditoriums or classrooms. The demonstration chrono-

Figure 3. Still frames from the motion film. See text for descriptions of the experiments in each frame. The format is the same used in Figure 1. (1) Ranschburg’s mnemometer, (2) complication pendulum, (3) Müller-Pilzecker rotation instrument, (4) Ophtalmotrope or Wundt’s eye motion demonstrator, (5) fall delay chronometer, (6) contact pendulum, (7) color mixer, (8) kymograph, (9) Deprez’s signal marker, (10) electromagnetic tuning fork, (11) Wundt’s pendulum for complication studies, (12) Mosso ergograph, (13) demonstration chronoscope, (14) electric control panel.

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scope, however, was used in one of the stud- ies conducted in the laboratory for research purposes (Aragón, 1939/1943). The experi- ment consisted of determining the RTs to the presentation of visual stimuli that involved focal or marginal attention.

Frame d shows a common setting in the lab- oratory used to measure regular intervals of time with a kymograph (8). The movement of an electromagnetic tuning fork (10) at a con- stant frequency, activated the solenoids in the signal marker (9) at regular intervals. The movement of the solenoids (Deprez signal) moved the tip that left a mark on smoked paper. Frame e shows a (6) pendulum for complication studies by Wundt. The participant was required to track the position of the pendulum using the dial.

Frame f shows a Mosso ergograph (12). This instrument was used to measure muscular fa- tigue by attaching a weight that was to be lifted with a finger. The movements of the ergograph were recorded with a kymograph. This instru- ment was used in the first application of exper- imental psychology to organizations in Mexico. Aragón’s students registered the muscular fa- tigue in factory workers to determine their effi- ciency relative to their income, working hours, and feeding habits (Aragón, 1939/1943).

Other Instruments

Other instruments in the laboratory, described in the press articles from 1916, in the inventory of electrical instruments,20 and in letters9 and papers by Aragón (e.g., 1939/1943, 1941), which were part of the original equipment of the laboratory, were (1) Lehmann plethysmographs, (2) transmis- sion-sphygmographs according to Marey, and (3) cardiographs.

The plethysmograph (1) was used to measure the changes in blood pressure in the hand. In the model by Lehmann, the hand was introduced in the instrument, which was filled with water. In one experiment reported by Aragón (1941), changes in hand blood pressure were studied as a reaction to common and uncommon words read to the participant. The sphygmograph (2) had a similar function but could be used in other parts of the body; for example, it could be attached to the chest.

The cardiograph (3) was used to measure heart rate through chest movement. Changes in

pressure in a rubber bulb were transmitted to a kymograph (e.g., with a Marey’s drum). The sphygmographs and cardiographs were used in the laboratory of experimental physiology ar- ranged by Vergara-Lope (Cházaro-García & Rodríguez de Romo, 2006). The sphygmo- graphs were also described by Aragón (1902) as instruments important in measuring emotional responses. Other instruments used in the labo- ratory were as follows: an assortment of vertical and horizontal kymographs, tuning forks that could be used to present tones of different pitches, dynamometers for measuring force, ol- factometers for presenting different odors, es- thesiometers used to apply tactile stimulation, and tachistoscopes used to present visual stim- uli. The specific models of these instruments, however, are unknown.

Psychology and Psychiatry

In 1925, as a physician with training in psy- chiatry, Aragón was selected to evaluate the work conducted at the psychiatric hospital known as La Castañeda, the largest psychiatric hospital in Mexico at the time. He reported several problems in the hospital including poor medical records, lack of personnel with ade- quate training, and insufficient research con- ducted in the hospital (Sacristán, 2010). Aragón prepared guidelines for filling the medical re- cords of the psychiatric patients. In these guide- lines, he proposed using as diagnostic tools some of the instruments found in the psycho- logical laboratory. He suggested exploring tac- tile, visual, auditory, and movement sensations, exploring the visual and chromatic field (that could be measured using Wundt=s perimeter), measuring RTs for tactile, visual, and auditory stimuli, and measuring attention using tachisto- scopes (Aragón, 1943). A few years later, in 1936, Aragón became the director of the project of creating an Institute of Psychology and Psy- chiatry in the National Autonomous University of Mexico.21 The creation of this institute at- tempted to materialize Aragón’s notion of the connection between psychiatry and psychology. Although the project was cancelled only 2 years later,22 the connection, however, persisted and ended up placing psychology in Mexico under the dominion of psychiatry for several years (see, e.g., Robles, 1952, p. 258); a situation probably not anticipated by Aragón.

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Legacy of the Laboratory

During the 1930s, numerous psychologists in Mexico enrolled in experimental psychol- ogy courses taught in Aragón’s laboratory. One notable example was Rogelio Díaz- Guerrero23 who attended courses circa 1938. Díaz-Guerrero noted that he learned the im- portance of experimental psychology and volkerpsychologie from Aragón (Carrascoza Venegas, 2003). When Díaz-Guerrero contin- ued his education in psychology at the Uni- versity of Iowa, Kenneth Spence’s emphasis on experimental behavioral psychology, and Kurt Lewin’s analysis of social interactions, resonated with what he had learned in Aragón’s laboratory. When he returned to Mexico, he addressed the importance of both, behavioral and quantitative social psychology in his courses. When these ideas matured in the subsequent generations of psychologists, they produced the impetus for replacing the College of Psychology that was part of the Faculty of Philosophy of Literature, and was dominated by a psychiatric approach, with an independent Faculty of Psychology in 1973. Díaz-Guerrero was actively involved in this transition.

It is unclear when the first psychological laboratory in Mexico was closed. One author (e.g., Curiel-Benfield, 1962) observed that the psychological laboratory that Aragón founded in 1916 was active for over 30 years, thus outliving its creator who died in 1942. As with other laboratories associated with func- tional psychology, however, the effects of the psychological laboratory endured in such way that it may be argued that the laboratory never really disappeared, but rather evolved into the laboratories seen today in the Faculty of Psy- chology of UNAM.

Endnotes

1. Born in Mexico (1880–1942), he obtained a medical degree in 1904 at the National School of Medicine. He was a professor at the National School of Medicine, the National Preparatory School, the School of High Studies, and the School for Teachers. He was the interim Director of the National Prepara- tory School in 1915 and 1921, and interim rector of UNAM in 1934. He was the director of the Faculty of Philosophy and Literature from 1933 to 1938. He

obtained a doctoral degree from the School of High Studies in 1933.

2. The National University of Mexico, estab- lished in Mexico City in 1910, was preceded by the Royal and Pontifical University of Mexico created in 1551. The latter closed in 1833 and was gradually reorganized into independent schools: a National Pre- paratory School and schools for specialized studies, the National Law School, National Medicine School, Special Engineering School, National School of Fine Arts, and ENAE. Students attended one of the schools for specialized studies after graduating from the National Preparatory School. In 1910, the inde- pendent schools became part of the National Univer- sity of Mexico, which in 1929 obtained autonomy and became UNAM.

3. General of the Mexican Army and president of Mexico for nine terms extending from 1876 to 1910 totaling almost 30 years. He lost power in 1910 after a manipulated election. Díaz’s dictatorship (known as porfiriato) was overthrown between 1910 and 1911 as part of the movement known as the Mexican Revolution (1910–1920/1924). He is known for at- tempting to place Mexico in path to modernity by imitating the culture of European countries, espe- cially France.

4. Born in Mexico (1868–1946), he obtained a law degree in 1891 from the National Law School and, in 1910, an honorary doctorate from the Na- tional University of Mexico. In 1896, he designed a project that included teaching experimental psychol- ogy at the National Preparatory School. After 1903, he participated in the creation of the National Uni- versity of Mexico. He was the 2nd and the 12th rector of the National University of Mexico from 1913 to 1914 and from 1923 to 1924. He was the Subsecre- tary of Public Instruction from 1905 to 1911 and director of ENAE in 1913 and from 1921 to 1924.

5. Acta de Sesión Número 3 de la Secretaría de Justicia e Instrucción Pública [Session Act Number 3, Secretary of Justice and Public Instruction] (1896). Revista de Instrucción Pública, p. 593.

6. Carta de Miguel Schultz al rector de la Uni- versidad Nacional de México [Letter from Miguel Schultz to the rector of the National University of Mexico]. March, 29, 1916. Archivo Histórico de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México [Histor- ical Archives of the National Autonomous University of Mexico]. Collection: Escuela Nacional de Altos Estudios, Facultad de Filosofia y Letras, Expediente [File] 551, Caja [Box] 23, pp. 3–4.

7. Mexican writer, politician and educator. He obtained a law degree in 1871 from the National Law School and an honorary doctorate from the National University of Mexico in 1910. He was a congress- man, member of the Supreme Court of Justice, Sub- secretary, and Secretary of Public Instruction. He was

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responsible for preparing the project for the creation of the National University of Mexico.

8. Carta de Enrique O. Aragón al director de la ENAE, Miguel Schultz, solicitando el equipo para el laboratorio de psicología experimental [Letter from Enrique O. Aragón to the director of ENAE request- ing the equipment for the laboratory of experimental psychology]. March, 27, 1916. Archivo Histórico de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México [His- torical Archives of the National Autonomous Univer- sity of Mexico]. Collection: Escuela Nacional de Altos Estudios, Facultad de Filosofia y Letras, Expe- diente [File] 526, Caja [Box] 23, p. 2.

9. Mexican architect who worked as a sculptor from 1868 to 1876. He was the professor of History and Geography at the National Preparatory School, the Normal School for Teachers, and ENAE. He was Interim Director of the National Preparatory School from 1904 to 1905 and Director of ENAE from 1915 to 1919. He was interim rector of the National Uni- versity of Mexico form 1916 to 1917.

10. Reporte del conserje de la ENAE [Report of the concierge ENAE] April 23, 1916. Archivo Histórico de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México [Historical Archives of the National Auton- omous University of Mexico]. Collection: Escuela Nacional de Altos Estudios, Facultad de Filosofia y Letras, Expediente [File] 1031, pp. 103, 116.

11. Carta de Enrique O. Aragón solicitando la compra de accesorios para los instrumentos [Letter from Enrique O. Aragón requesting the acquisition of accessories for instruments]. September, 20, 1916. Archivo Histórico de la Universidad Nacional Au- tónoma de México [Historical Archives of the Na- tional Autonomous University of Mexico]. Collec- tion: Escuela Nacional de Altos Estudios, Facultad de Filosofia y Letras, Expediente [File] 551, Caja [Box] 23, p. 14.

12. Reporte del conserje de la ENAE [Report of the concierge of ENAE] June 4, 1916. Archivo Histórico de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México [Historical Archives of the National Auton- omous University of Mexico]. Collection: Escuela Nacional de Altos Estudios, Facultad de Filosofia y Letras, Expediente [File] 1032, pp. 33, 34, 38.

13. Carta de invitación a la conferencia demostra- tiva en el Gabinete de Psicología Experimental [In- vitation letter to the demonstrative conference of psychological laboratory], October 24, 1916. Ar- chivo Histórico de la Universidad Nacional Au- tónoma de México [Historical Archives of the Na- tional Autonomous University of Mexico]. Collection: Escuela Nacional de Altos Estudios, Fac- ultad de Filosofia y Letras, Expediente [File] 526, Caja [Box] 23, p. 17.

14. Archivo Histórico de la Facultad de Me- dicina. Fondo Escuela de Medicina y Alumnos [His- torical Archives of the Faculty of Medicine, Source

School of Medicine and Students], Legajo [Package] 69, Expediente [File] 55.

15. Born in Mexico in 1865, he obtained a med- ical degree from the National School of Medicine in 1890. He conducted research at the National Medical Institute for 20 years, and was a professor of physi- ology at the National School of Medicine, where he was in charge of the laboratory of experimental phys- iology. His research on physiology of altitude won a Hodgkins silver medal awarded by the Smithsonian Institute in 1895.

16. Vergara-Lope was enrolled in James Mark Baldwin’s psychosociology course in 1910 but he did not finish the course (Valderrama-Iturbe, 2004).

17. According to a plan created in 1916, two degrees were awarded at ENAE: Academic Professor after a 2-year program, and University Professor after a 3-year program. The specialization in Psychology was part of the area of Philosophical Sciences and Art of Education (Menéndez-Menéndez, 1996).

18. Was a Mexican writer, philosopher, politi- cian, and educator. He was the rector of the National University of Mexico from 1920 to 1921. After the Mexican Revolution he was named the first minister of education in the Secretaría de Educación Pública [Secretariat of Public Education] created in 1921. As minister, he proposed several reforms to reconstruct the education system in Mexico. Some of the reforms extended education to rural zones.

19. Chilean poet, educator, and diplomat. She received the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1945. She is the only Latin American woman to win this prize.

20. Inventario de instrumentos eléctricos repara- dos por David Nisembaum y Cia [Inventory of elec- trical instruments repaired by David Nisenbaum and Co.]. March 28, 1931. Archivo de la Dirección Gen- eral de Personal [Archives of the General Direction of Personnel]. Archivo de Personal [Personnel File] 6557, p. 465.

21. Carta del rector de la UNAM, Luis Chico Goerne, a Enrique Aragón [Letter from the rector of UNAM, Luis Chico Goerne, to Enrique Aragón]. July 8, 1936. Archivo de la Dirección General de Personal [Archives of the General Direction of Per- sonnel]. Archivo de Personal [Personnel File] 6557, p. 580.

22. Carta del rector de la UNAM a Enrique Aragón [Letter from the rector of UNAM to Enrique Aragón]. June 30, 1938. Archivo de la Dirección General de Personal [Archives of the General Direc- tion of Personnel]. Archivo de Personal [Personnel File] 6557, pp. 623–624.

23. Mexican psychologist and medical doctor (1918–2004). He obtained a medical degree in 1943 from the Faculty of Medicine of UNAM. He obtained a PhD in neurophysiology and psychology from the University of Iowa in 1947. He became a professor of

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psychology at UNAM in 1948 and was interim di- rector of the Faculty of Psychology in 1977.

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Appendix

1916 Demonstration of the Laboratory

A newspaper article published on August 30, 1916, in El Nacional (Creación y funciona- miento del g. de psicología experimental, 1916) described the conference and demonstrations in the psychological laboratory. Although techni- cal details were most likely suggested by Aragón, some of the descriptions are unclear, thus suggesting that a reporter not entirely fa- miliarized with the instruments wrote the arti- cle. The following is an English translation and adaptation of the article by the present author:

Creation and Functioning of the L. of Exper- imental Psychology.

On Friday 27th of the present [October, 1916] in the location of the class of General and Special Psychology, a demonstrative confer- ence of Experimental Psychology took place, it was imparted by doctor Enrique O. Aragón, professor of the course of such topic.

The act was presided by the rector of the University, and consisted in a series of interest- ing experiences [demonstrations] that followed a speech explaining them.

The experiences were in this order: the first had the purpose of finding the duration, that is, the reaction times, of sight and hearing, using, as instrument to estimate them, the Hipp Chro- noscope that measures sigmas, that is, millisec- onds [see Frames c and g in Figure 3]. Five experiences were conducted for the reaction of sight and five more for hearing; in these series it was demonstrated, that the difference between the two reaction points favored hearing [sic]. Additionally, a check test was performed with Wundt=s apparatus [probably with the contact pendulum in Figure 1] that was the second experience of the session being conducted.

The third, had the purpose of demonstrating the Weber-Fechner law that expresses that sen- sation grows logarithmically with excitation, or in other words, that exciters grow in a geometric progression and impressions grow in an arith- metic progression. The demonstration of this law was performed using rotation disks with light and dark sections whose area could be

increased or decreased, according to the case, producing, by rotating them, the impression of continuity from black to white, passing through gray or vice versa, but in a uniform gradation of fading [see instrument 4 in Figure 1].

The fourth experience consisted of obtaining the ergographic record of a person up to the point of muscular fatigue in the movements of flexion and extension of the middle finger of the right hand [see Frame f in Figure 3]. To that end, a smoked paper was placed previously on a kymograph cylinder, marking the time using an electromagnetic tuning fork with a Deprez sig- nal [see Frame d in Figure 3].

The fifth experience was to measure the chro- matic field of the red color on a person, by means of Wundt’s perimeter for the demonstra- tion [see instruments 8 and 10 in Figure 2].

There were also shown, using a microscope, several preparations of the nervous system that confirmed the remarkable neuronal theory of Ramón y Cajal, the illustrious Spanish histolo- gist.

These experiences were performed with per- fect success and demonstrated that the School of High Studies is equipped with the valuable el- ement of a laboratory for confirmation and psy- chological research, similar to the laboratories that exist in France, Germany, Italy, United States, and Argentina, a fact that honors the current administration, under whose supervi- sion, effective functioning was reached [sic].

These experiences as well as the studies of Experimental Psychology are of a serious char- acter and elevated in the scientific order, and constitute, by reaching the degree of organiza- tion that they already have in the School of High Studies, the conquest of positive progress in the intellectual duties that are cultivated in our homeland.

Received July 9, 2013 Revision received June 4, 2014

Accepted June 16, 2014 �

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