pick a current economic topic that relates to the material we have covered . Topic : Business and their costs

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1. PRODUCTION CHOICES AND COSTS: THE SHORT RUN

Learning Objectives

Understand the terms associated with the short-run production function—total product, average product, and marginal product—and explain and illustrate how they are related to each other.

Explain the concepts of increasing, diminishing, and negative marginal returns and explain the law of diminishing marginal returns.

Understand the terms associated with costs in the short run—total variable cost, total fixed cost, total cost, average variable cost, average fixed cost, average total cost, and marginal cost—and explain and illustrate how they are related to each other.

Explain and illustrate how the product and cost curves are related to each other and to determine in what ranges on these curves marginal returns are increasing, diminishing, or negative.

1. PRODUCTION CHOICES AND COSTS: THE SHORT RUN

Firms are organizations that produce goods and services.

The short run refers to a planning period over which the managers of a firm must consider one or more of their factors of production as fixed in quantity.

A fixed factor of production is a factor of production whose quantity cannot be changed during a particular period.

A variable factor of production is a factor of production whose quantity can be changed during a particular period.

The long run is the planning period over which a firm can consider all factors of production as variable.

1.1 The Short-Run Production Function

A production function captures the relationship between factors of production and the output of a firm.

Total, marginal, and average products

The total product curve is a graph that shows the quantities of output that can be obtained from different amounts of a variable factor of production, assuming other factors of production are fixed.

Slope of the total product curve = ΔQ/ΔL

The marginal product is the amount by which output rises with an additional unit of a variable factor.

The marginal product of labor is the amount by which output rises with an additional unit of labor.

EQUATION 1.1

1.1 The Short-Run Production Function

The average product is the output per unit of variable factor.

The average product of labor is the ratio of output to the number of units of labor (Q/L).

EQUATION 1.2

1.1 The Short-Run Production Function

Point on graph A B C D E F G H I
Units of labor per day 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Jackets per day 0.0 1.0 3.0 7.0 9.0 10.0 10.7 11.0 10.5

Chart1

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Total product
Series 1
ACME Clothing’s Total Product Curve
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
0
1
3
7
9
10
10.7
11
10.5

Sheet1

Series 1 Series 2 Series 3
0 0
1 1
2 3
3 7
4 9
5 10
6 10.7
7 11
8 10.5

From Total Product to the Average and Marginal Product of Labor

Panel (a)
Units of labor per day 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Jackets per day 0 1.0 3.0 7.0 9.0 10.0 10.7 11.0 10.5
Marginal product 1.0 2.0 4.0 2.0 1.0 0.7 0.3 -0.5
Average product 1.0 1.5 2.33 2.25 2.0 1.78 1.57 1.31

Total Utility and Marginal Utility Curves

Total product

Marginal product

Slope = -0.5

Slope = 0.3

Slope = 0.7

Slope = 1

Slope = 2

Slope = 4

Slope = 2

Average product

Slope = 1

Chart1

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Series 1
Jackets per day
Panel (b)
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
0
1
3
7
9
10
10.7
11
10.5

Sheet1

Series 1
0 0
1 1
2 3
3 7
4 9
5 10
6 10.7
7 11
8 10.5

Chart1

0 0
0.5 0.5
1 1
1.5 1.5
2 2
2.5 2.5
3 3
3.5 3.5
4 4
4.5 4.5
5 5
5.5 5.5
6 6
6.5 6.5
7 7
7.5 7.5
8 8
Series 1
Series 2
Units of labor per day
Marginal product, average product
1
1.5
1
2
1.25
3
1.5
4
1.915
3
2.33
2
2.29
1.5
2.25
1
2.125
0.85
2
0.7
1.89
0.5
1.78
0.3
1.675
-0.1
1.57
-0.5
1.44
1.31

Sheet1

Series 1 Series 2
0
0.5 1
1 1.5 1
1.5 2 1.25
2 3 1.5
2.5 4 1.915
3 3 2.33
3.5 2 2.29
4 1.5 2.25
4.5 1 2.125
5 0.85 2
5.5 0.7 1.89
6 0.5 1.78
6.5 0.3 1.675
7 -0.1 1.57
7.5 -0.5 1.44
8 1.31

Increasing, Diminishing, and Negative Marginal Returns

  • Firms experience increasing marginal returns when the range over which each additional unit of a variable factor adds more to total output than the previous unit.
  • Firms experience diminishing marginal returns when the range over which each additional unit of a variable factor adds less to total output than the previous unit.
  • Firms experience negative marginal returns when the range over which additional units of a variable factor reduce total output, given constant quantities of all other factors.
  • The law of diminishing marginal returns state that the marginal product of any variable factor of production will eventually decline, assuming the quantities of other factors of production are unchanged.

Increasing, Diminishing, and Negative Marginal Returns

Increasing marginal returns

Negative marginal returns

Diminishing marginal returns

Chart1

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Series 1
Jackets per day
Panel (b)
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
0
1
3
7
9
10
10.7
11
10.5

Sheet1

Series 1
0 0
1 1
2 3
3 7
4 9
5 10
6 10.7
7 11
8 10.5

1.2 Costs in the Short Run

  • Variable costs are the costs associated with the use of variable factors of production.
  • Fixed costs are the costs associated with the use of fixed factors of production.
  • Total variable cost is a cost that varies with the level of output.
  • Total fixed cost is a cost that does not vary with output.
  • Total cost is the sum of total variable cost and total fixed cost.

EQUATION 1.3

From Total Production to Total Cost

D’

11 jackets: variable cost=$700

10 jackets: variable cost=$500

9 jackets: variable cost=$400

9 jackets: variable cost=$400

3 jackets: variable cost=$200

1 jacket: variable cost=$100

0 jackets: variable cost=$0

Chart1

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Series 1
Jackets per day
Total variable cost per day
Computing Variable Costs
0
100
163
200
233
258
280
300
338
400
500
700

Sheet1

Series 1 Series 2 Series 3
0 0
1 100
2 163
3 200
4 233
5 258
6 280
7 300
8 338
9 400
10 500
11 700

From Total Production to Total Cost

Increasing marginal returns

Diminishing marginal returns

Quantity/day 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0
Labor/day 0 1.00 1.63 2.00 2.33 2.58 2.80 3.00 3.38 4.00 5.00 7.00
Total variable cost $0 $100 $163 $200 $233 $258 $280 $300 $338 $400 $500 $700

Chart1

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Total variable cost curve
Series 1
Jackets per day
Total variable cost per day
Total Variable Cost Curve
0
100
163
200
233
258
280
300
338
400
500
700

Sheet1

Series 1 Series 2 Series 3
0 0
1 100
2 163
3 200
4 233
5 258
6 280
7 300
8 338
9 400
10 500
11 700

From Variable Cost to Total Cost

Increasing marginal returns

Diminishing marginal returns

Total cost curve

Total Fixed cost = $200

Total variable cost curve

Chart1

0 0
1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7 7
8 8
9 9
10 10
11 11
Series 1
Series 2
Jackets per day
Total variable cost per day
0
200
100
300
163
363
200
400
233
433
258
458
280
480
300
500
338
538
400
600
500
700
700
900

Sheet1

Series 1 Series 2 Series 3
0 0 200
1 100 300
2 163 363
3 200 400
4 233 433
5 258 458
6 280 480
7 300 500
8 338 538
9 400 600
10 500 700
11 700 900

Marginal and Average Costs

  • Average total cost is total cost divided by quantity; it is the firms total cost per unit of output.

EQUATION 1.4

  • Average variable cost is total variable cost dIvided by quantity; it is the firm’s total variable cost per unit of output.

EQUATION 1.5

  • Average fixed cost is total fixed cost divided by quantity.

EQUATION 1.6

EQUATION 1.7

EQUATION 1.8

Total Cost and Marginal Cost

Marginal cost curve

Chart1

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Total cost curve
Series 1
Jackets per day
Total cost per day
200
300
363
400
433
458
480
500
538
600
700
900

Sheet1

Series 1 Series 2 Series 3
0 200
1 300
2 363
3 400
4 433
5 458
6 480
7 500
8 538
9 600
10 700
11 900

Chart1

0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
5.5
6
6.5
7
7.5
8
8.5
9
9.5
10
10.5
11
Series 1
Jackets per day
Marginal cost per day
100
81.5
63
50
37
35
33
29
25
23.5
22
21
20
29
38
50
62
81
100
150
200

Sheet1

Series 1 Series 2 Series 3
0
0.5 100
1 81.5
1.5 63
2 50
2.5 37
3 35
3.5 33
4 29
4.5 25
5 23.5
5.5 22
6 21
6.5 20
7 29
7.5 38
8 50
8.5 62
9 81
9.5 100
10 150
10.5 200
11

Marginal Cost, Average Fixed Cost, Average Variable Cost, and Average Total Cost in the Short Run

2. PRODUCTION CHOICES AND COSTS: THE LONG RUN

Learning Objectives

Apply the marginal decision rule to explain how a firm chooses its mix of factors of production in the long run.

Define the long-run average cost curve and explain how it relates to economies and diseconomies or scale.

2.1 Choosing the Factor Mix

EQUATION 2.1

EQUATION 2.2

  • Capital intensive refers to a situation in which a firm has a high ratio of capital to labor.
  • Labor intensive refers to a situation in which a firm has a low ratio of labor to capital.

2.2 Costs in the Long Run

  • The Long run average cost curve is a graph showing the firms lowest cost per unit at each level of output, assuming that all factors of production are variable.

ATC20

Long-run average cost (LRAC)

ATC30

ATC40

ATC50

Chart1

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Series 1
Thousands of CDs per week
Cost per unit
A
B
C
D
9
7
5.5
4.8
5.5
8

Sheet1

Series 1 Series 2 Series 3
0 9
5
10 7
15
20 5.5
25
30 4.8
35
40 5.5
45
50 8

Economies and Diseconomies of Scale

  • Economies of scale refers to a situation in which the long run average cost declines as the firm expands its output.
  • Diseconomies of scale refers to a situation in which the long run average cost increases as the firm expands its output.
  • Constant returns to scale refers to a situation in which the long run average cost stays the same over an output range.

Economies of scale

Constant returns to scale

Diseconomies of scale

Economies and diseconomies of scale affect the sizes of firms operating in a market.

Chart1

0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
Long-run average cost
Series 1
Output per period
Cost per unit
10
9
8
7
6
5.5
5
4.5
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4.5
5
5.5
6
7
8
9
10

Sheet1

Series 1 Series 2 Series 3
0
1 10
2 9
3 8
4 7
5 6
6 5.5
7 5
8 4.5
9 4
10 4
11 4
12 4
13 4
14 4
15 4
16 4
17 4
18 4.5
19 5
20 5.5
21 6
22 7
23 8
24 9
25 10

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