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RESPONDING TO TRANSNATIONALISM PHENOMENA Ziyanak, Sebahattin . Race, Gender & Class ; New Orleans Vol. 23, Iss. 1/2, (2016): 219-222.

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ABSTRACT

Readers of the related literature are confused about the various descriptions of the transnationalism phenomena.

The main question they seek to answer is "Can every immigrant be categorized as a transnational immigrant?" This

paper critically discusses different approaches concerning immigrant transnationalism. This paper aims to define

the terms immigrant transnationalism, transnational migrant and the transnational community. This paper

specifically focused on the extent to which studies of transnationalism challenge the existing concepts and

theories of international migration. In order to address these issues, transnational ideology is examined in terms of

the dynamics of transnationalism. This paper also provides in depth insight as to how transnationalism is different

from other concepts described in the history of migration.

FULL TEXT

Headnote

Abstract: Readers of the related literature are confused about the various descriptions of the transnationalism

phenomena. The main question they seek to answer is "Can every immigrant be categorized as a transnational

immigrant?" This paper critically discusses different approaches concerning immigrant transnationalism. This

paper aims to define the terms immigrant transnationalism, transnational migrant and the transnational

community. This paper specifically focused on the extent to which studies of transnationalism challenge the

existing concepts and theories of international migration. In order to address these issues, transnational ideology

is examined in terms of the dynamics of transnationalism. This paper also provides in depth insight as to how

transnationalism is different from other concepts described in the history of migration.

Keywords: transnationalism; migration; identity; immigrant's loyalty

Linda Basch, Nina Schiller, and Christina Blacn claimed that they derived the term transnational. In 1994, they

specifically focused on the Haitian immigrant who had been encouraged by the Haitian government to engage in

agricultural production. The Haitian minister sought immigrant assistance in developing an exotic fruit industry for

purposes of exporting this product (p. 2).

Transnational immigrants are also encouraged to carry electronics back to the home country by eliminating the

taxes placed on these items for them. Balikbayan and Pilipinos are allowed to bring in tax free items. These

aforementioned countries engaged in new regulations developed by the nation state. These immigrants are

considered as loyal citizens to their nation state.

According to Basch, Schiller, and Blacn (1994), transnational ideology supports the continuation of multiple ties for

immigrants in order to help them maintain contact with their society of origin. They articulate the view that within

emergent migration processes, people live their lives by being stretched across national borders. However,

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technological developments and transportation, applicable air fare and telecommunications make

transnationalism easier.

In 1994, they illuminated the fact that through transnationalism, interconnections can be readily sustained

between those who have stayed home and those who have travelled abroad. In other words, this is an

interconnected social experience. They define the term embedded identities as simultaneously being connected to

two or more nation states by building multiple relationships across these, including economic, social,

organizational, religious, and political relationships. This dynamic of transnationalism and its structure resembles

the other forms of global relationships and global capitalism.

Basch, Schiller, and Blacn (1994) described the process of transnationalism as fragile and used the term global

vulnerability in this regard. This is because sojourns are often temporary; and individuals can find themselves

becoming members of two or more societies. Loyalty of this immigrant group is questionable, however.

Discussion

Portes (2003) argues transnationalism is not new and persistently criticize Basch, Schiller, and Blacn's findings

and outcomes. According to Portes (2003), this term is not a novel phenomenon, because despite the presence of

rapid networks, transnationalism can be seen throughout the history of migration.

Moreover, Portes (2003) critiques the previous literature because it focuses only on the economic side of

transnationalism across national borders. According to the definition of this concept, being an activist for human

rights, advocating for the environment such as green peace members for global purposes across national borders

are also transnational activities.

This phenomenon and the diverse views discussed in the related literature confuse readers since they include any

immigrant community, social activities, and political events, or global or economic actions. According to Portes

(2003) every immigrant cannot be categorized as transnational. The everyday lives of immigrants are not

predictive of any universal practice.

Another critical emergent issue is dual citizenship. Many sending countries have many immigrants who are

expatriated from their home country, but these people are valuable linkages back in the originating country. I raise

the question once again about how they preserve their loyalties?

However, this component of the immigrant phenomenon depends on the extent to which people move from one

country to another and how they do this. This can result in circular migration that is only seasonal. The fact is that

more secure immigrants are becoming involved in these activities.

According to Levit (2001) religion also plays an active role in the sending countries such as missionaries. Portes

(2003) also argues about the feasibility of transnationalism in the second generation. Portes (2003) also touches

upon the fact that the literature definitely needs a quantitative longitudinal study to derive more accurate

clarifications.

Morever, Levit (2001) stated transnational villages have several characteristics. First, they are not required to be a

member (p. 11). Second, they are identical to being part of social remittances. Third, across the borders these

villages are established by organizations.

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Levit (2001) also touches upon the dual citizenship issue. Levit (2001) views this as just one way of being a

transnational actor. Political and religious groups also allow one to possibly have dual allegiances (p. 12). Levit

(2001) also opposes some of Basch, Schiller, and Blacn's findings and outcomes. She asserts that living

transnationalism is not a new thing.

Takenaka (2000) talked about transition changes that occurred in the Japanese community and posed the

question of what held them together. Emerging transnational communities have created significant outcomes in

the host countries. As a result of their newly constructed identity, A Nikkei identity is distinct nationally and

transnationally. These immigrants are not really Japanese any longer. Their membership is not based on their

national affiliation, but also their transnational affiliation. However, they have significant adaptation issues in both

places.

Jones (2002) examined second generation transnational immigrants. He (2002) found that transnational behavior

varies depending on the originating country. Compared with Russians, Chinese, and Jewish immigrants, Dominican

and South American migrants have strong ties with the originating country, such as traveling there frequently,

sending remittances regularly, and practicing the home country's language at home.

Yang (2006) argues that "transnationalism has been emerging as a new mode of labor market incorporation for a

growing number of immigrants" (p. 176). According to Yang (2006) a transnational individual's life style is based

on what they do on a regular basis across the borders. Now more migrants are carrying out a variety of activities

including acting as a double loaded professional who has two jobs. Yang (2006) defines the term with some

reservations because although many live their lives across national borders, not all cross border social activities

are transitional activities. Otherwise, we will accept the fact that every immigrant is a transnational. Finally, it is

suggested they are sojourners and settlers in both home and host countries (p. 175). They are looking for their

opportunities in order to maximize their opportunities. Yang (2006) also posits that transnationalism was

historically available, but not to the same extent as in modern times.

However, Levitt and Water claims that the majority of second generation children do not engage in transnational

migration activities. We can conclude therefore that the term does not commonly apply to the second generation,

but to the first generation.

Conclusion

In order to maintain transnational migration, the most important effect is based on strong network relationships.

The second generation can also be increased in numbers, but it might still be a small minority. Debates on

transnationalism lead countries towards political instability and crisis situations during times of war.

In response to the question of whether transnationalism will continue or not among the second generation? It can

be reinforced with regards to the social network from the home country. However, there is not much evidence of

this in the second generation.

References

Basch, L., Schiler, N.G., &Szanton, C.B. (1994). Nations unbound: Transnational projects, professional

predicaments, and deterritorialized nation-states. Transnational projects: A new perspective. Postfach,

Switzerland: Gordon and Breach Science Publishers.

Jones-Correa, M. (2002). The study of transnationalism among the children of immigrants: Where we are and

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where we should be headed. In P. Levitt &M. Waters (Eds.), The changing face of home: The transnational lives of

the second generation. New York: Russell Sage Foundation.

Levitt, P. (2001). The transnational villagers. Berkely: University of California Press.

Portes, A. (2003). Conclusion: Theoretical convergences and empirical evidence in the study of immigrant

transnationalism. Internal Migration Review, 37(3):874-892.

Takenaka, A. (2000). Transnational community and its ethnic consequences: The return migration and the

transformation of ethnicity of Japanese- Peruvians. In N. Foner, R. Rumbaut &S. Gold (Eds.), Immigration

researchfor a new century: Multidisciplinary perspective, pp. 442-468. New York: Russell Sage Publications.

Yang, P. Q. (2006). Transnationalism as a new mode of immigrant labor market incorporation: Preliminary evidence

from Chinese transnational migrant. Journal of Chinese Overseas, 1(2Nov. 2006):173-192.

AuthorAffiliation

Sebahattin Ziyanak

Department of Social Sciences

University of Texas of the Permian Basin

Dr. Sebahattin Ziyanak is Assistant Professor in Sociology at the University of Texas of the Permian Basin. Dr.

Ziyanak was born in Istanbul, Turkey. He received his B.S. in sociology in 1999 from the Mimar Sinan University in

Istanbul, Turkey, and his M.A. in sociology in 2007 from the University of Houston, Texas. Dr. Ziyanak completed

his doctorate in sociology from the University of North Texas in 2013. His major areas of interest are in the

subjects of delinquency, deviance, social organization, social movement, sociology of education, and race and

ethnicity. Dr. Ziyanak is the author of "'Analyzing Delinquency among Kurdish Adolescents: Test of Hirschi 's Social

Bonding Theory", "Crossroads: A Grassroots Organization for the Homeless in Houston", and his publications have

also appeared in RGC Publication, University of New Orleans, National Forum of Applied Educational Research

Journal, International Journal of Human Sciences, The International Journal of Humanities and Social Science, The

Journal of Academic Social Science, and The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies.

Address: University of Texas of the Permian Basin, Department of Social Sciences, 4901 East University Blvd.,

Odessa, TX 79762. Ph: 432-552-2361, Email: [email protected]

DETAILS

Subject: Agricultural production; Aliens; Citizenship; Migration; Remittances;

Transnationalism

Ethnicity: Multi-Ethnic

Publication title: Race, Gender &Class; New Orleans

Volume: 23

Issue: 1/2

Pages: 219-222

Number of pages: 4

Publication year: 2016

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LINKS Check for full text in other resources

Publication date: 2016

Publisher: Race, Gender and Class

Place of publication: New Orleans

Country of publication: United States, New Orleans

Publication subject: Multi-Ethnic, Women's Studies, Men's Studies, Ethnic Interests

ISSN: 10828354

Source type: Scholarly Journals

Language of publication: English

Document type: Feature

Document feature: References

ProQuest document ID: 1867156486

Document URL: https://search.proquest.com/docview/1867156486?accountid=8289

Last updated: 2017-11-24

Database: ProQuest Central

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