Week 4 Questions
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ResourcesWeek1toWeek4.docxWeek 1: Lecture
Terms
Learn the definitions of the following terms:
Life Span
· The average age members of a species can survive under optimum conditions free of disease and accident
· Usually between 80 and 90 years for humans
Maximum Life Potential
· The length of life of the longest living member of a species
· 122 years for humans, the oldest age of a human recorded as of this writing
Life Expectancy
· The average number of years remaining at any specific age, most commonly measured from birth
· Varies among sexes and races (see the table below)
Crossover Phenomenon
· Life expectancies of older Blacks and older Whites reverse at a certain age
· See the table below
Demographics
Each year the Administration on Aging provides Profile of Older Americans online. To view these statistics, go to www.aoa.gov (Links to an external site.) and click on Aging Statistics and then on Profile of Older Americans. These data are an excellent annual update of important demographics related to the older adult population. It would be nonsense to have you memorize the ever changing extensive statistics from the Profiles, but I do want you to be conversant about the various demographic categories. Furthermore, the following statistics in the United States are so important that you are responsible for remembering them:
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Statistics on Life Expectancy in the United States: |
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Source: Harris 2007 (p. 32) |
One statistic that you need to memorize for exams is that 5% of older persons in the United States are institutionalized, primarily in skilled nursing homes. The rest of the statistics you will need to know are outlined in the table below.
Harris, Diana. The Sociology of Aging, Rowman and Littlefield: Lanham, Maryland, 2007.
Week 1: Lecture
Research Methods
Your text discusses three basic research methods with which you should be familiar:
· Survey
· Experiment
· Case Study
You should know the strengths and weaknesses of each:
The sample survey likely is the most widely used research method in the field of gerontology. It is highly efficient and cost effective. However, any method that relies primarily on self-reports (e.g., interviews, questionnaires, etc.) tends to have limited reliability (i.e., consistent results). Furthermore, the sampling technique must be scientific if the data collected are to be generalizable.
The value of the experiment depends largely on the scientific research design, the careful control of the independent variables, and meticulous observations. In experiments involving treatment groups and control groups, it is important to use double-blind studies that prevent both the researcher and subjects from knowing who is receiving the treatment while collecting data.
The case study, involving an in-depth focus on an individual or relatively small group, is also used in gerontology. This study method lends itself to the development of insights and the formation of hypotheses, but it has almost no scientific generalizability.
Study Design
Two study designs are significant in gerontology:
· Cross-sectional Studies
· Longitudinal Studies
Cross-sectional studies observe subjects at one point in time (e.g., a day, week, or other relatively short period) and measure age differences. Longitudinal studies observe subjects at two or more points in time (often at intervals of several years or more) and measure changes related to aging.
These two study designs often have yielded very different results in gerontology. Note the discussion in the text regarding the different conclusions that have been drawn regarding intelligence and aging, depending upon whether cross-sectional or longitudinal studies have been employed. We will return to the significance of these distinctions several times during the course, especially in our study of personality and aging and intelligence and aging.
Facts on Aging Quiz
On the next page, you'll be taken to the “Facts on Aging Quiz," which was developed by gerontologist Erdman Palmore. This quiz does not affect your grade, but the results are important for our class discussions on aging.
Before starting the survey, it is essential that you understand the following:
· The quiz is composed of 24 true/false questions.
· You will only be allowed one attempt at this survey. There is no time limit but you should not start the survey until you are ready to complete it.
If you have never taken a quiz through WorldClassRoom, please see the FAQ on "How do I take a quiz?Links to an external site. "
Myths of Aging
Now that you've taken the " Facts of Aging Quiz," read about the "Myths of Aging" from Kart’s Realities of Aging
." The rationale for the correct answers to much of the quiz is included in Kart’s myths. Information throughout the course at various times also will address the quiz.
A New Age for the Old Now watch the film, "A New Age for the Old." A form
has been provided for you to summarize what you consider to be the most important information from the film for your own use.
(Video forms are provided for you to take notes for discussion and testing purposes. They are not to be submitted to your instructor.)
"A New Age for the Old" is the oldest film that we will view as a part of this class. Only a few segments of the older films are important, and I will generally specify those components. This film provides a good historical backdrop to aging in the Western world and the changing views of aging in the United States. For testing purposes, there are two points made in the film that you are responsible for remembering:
1. The period from colonialization to roughly the 1820’s is often referred to as the period of gerontophilia in the United States, a period characterized by a high regard for older people. The period from roughly the 1780’s to present is often considered a period of gerontophobia, a period characterized by a fear of aging and a deprecation of older people. Notice that there is a transition period of roughly forty years from the 1780's to the 1820's.
2. The Industrial Revolution was a catalyst for change in the way older people were viewed in this country. Younger people were no longer as dependent on the land of their parents as before; many younger people moved to urban areas and became more independent. This gave impetus to the tendency for older people to be devalued.
Video
Week 1: Activities
Readings and Media
· Aging and the Life Course: Chapters 1, 2, and 4
· Handouts
· Guidelines for Visits with Older Adults
· Guidelines for Book Reports and Articles
· "Myths of Aging" from Kart's Realities of Aging
· Video: "A New Age for the Old
Quiz
Question 1
The majority of old people (past age 65) are senile (i.e. defective memory, disoriented, or demented).
You Answered
True
False
All five senses tend to decline in old age.
You Answered
True
False
Most old people have no interest in, or capacity for, sexual relations.
You Answered
True
False
Lung capacity tends to decline in old age.
You Answered
True
False
The majority of old people feel miserable most of the time.
You Answered
True
False
Physical strength tends to decline in old age.
You Answered
True
False
At least one-tenth of the aged are living in long-stay institutions (i.e.nursing homes, mental hospitals, homes for the aged, etc.)
You Answered
True
False
Aged drivers have fewer accidents per person than drivers under age 65.
True
You Answered
False
Most older workers cannot work as effectively as younger workers.
You Answered
True
False
About 80 percent of the aged are healthy enough to carry out their normal activities.
You Answered
True
False
Most old people are set in their ways and unable to change.
True
You Answered
False
Old people usually take longer to learn something new.
You Answered
True
False
It is almost impossible for most old people to learn new things.
True
You Answered
False
The reaction time of most old people tends to be slower than reaction time of younger people.
You Answered
True
False
In general, most old people are pretty much alike.
You Answered
True
False
The majority of old people are seldom bored.
You Answered
True
False
The majority of old people are socially isolated and lonely.
You Answered
True
False
Older workers have fewer accidents than younger workers.
You Answered
True
False
Over 15 percent of the U.S. population are now age 65 or over.
You Answered
True
False
Most medical practitioners tend to give low priority to the aged.
True
You Answered
False
The majority of older people have incomes below the poverty level (as defined by the Federal Government).
You Answered
True
False
The majority of old people are working or would like to have some kind of work to do (including housework and volunteer work).
You Answered
True
False
Older people tend to become more religious as they age.
You Answered
True
False
The majority of old people are seldom irritated or angry.
You Answered
True
False
Last Attempt Details:
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Time: |
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Week 2: Lecture
"Facts on Aging" Quiz Feedback
During our 1st week, you completed the "Facts on Aging" quiz. Several of the items from the quiz will be on the first exam. A few of the items have become less than clearly-cut right or wrong. I have provided a few principles that will help in recalling correct answers:
1. Generally, age-related slowing occurs to both cognitive and physiological processes.
2. Secondly, usually there is a biological decline associated with aging. This does not mean that you as an individual are doomed to be less fit twenty years from now than you are today; but when we talk about averages, most of us will experience fitness and other biologically-related declines.
Week 2: Lecture
Biological Aspects of Aging
Review the declines of the various organs and systems of the body in the text. This extremely brief review will serve as a backdrop to viewing the film, "The Natural Process of Aging." In the film each of the major systems of the body is discussed in terms of age-related changes. In reading the text and viewing the film, keep in mind that normative or average changes are discussed. Aging is extremely variable and these changes obviously do not occur equally or simultaneously to all older people. One of the several fundamental principles of this class is that older persons are a highly heterogeneous or diverse population.
In the activities section of this week's content, you'll try some simulations of age-related sensation changes and conduct a few of your own.
Week 2: Lecture
The Natural Process of Aging
Now watch the film, "The Natural Process of Aging." Again, use the form
provided to record the important points in the film for your own use.
· Click here to open the video "The Natural Process of Aging"
In "The Natural Process of Aging" you are responsible for remembering that:
1. Older people tend to lose their ability to hear high-pitched sounds first
2. Older people tend to see certain colors (e.g., yellows and oranges) better than others (e.g., blues and greens)
In regard to the biological aspects of aging, there are over 20 biological theories of aging that have been classified under three principal groups:
· genetic theories
· non-genetic theories
· physiological theories
Two additional principles of great importance related to the biological aspects of aging:
1. Biological declines associated with aging do not always translate into functional losses. In other words, older people may be able to perform most regular activities without significant limitations.
2. Older people often develop compensatory mechanisms to help counteract their losses. For instance, a slight loss of hearing may result in greater attention to a speaker or lip-reading. Older people tend to be highly adaptive.
The text and "The Natural Process of Aging" focus on biological declines. To put this information in perspective, read "Act Your Age
" by George Sheehan, a cardiologist who once wrote a monthly column for Runner's World.
Week 2: Lecture
Health and Aging
The text has a brief and important discussion of the health status of the elderly. Harris (previous text, 2007) states that in a study between 2000 and 2002, 73 percent of the people aged 65 and over rated their health as good or better. Your instructor has reviewed extensive literature on health and aging over several decades and virtually all of the studies report two-thirds or more of the older persons rated their health as good to excellent.
It is accurate that older persons have a higher incidence of chronic conditions (conditions with relatively gradual onset and irreversibility). Note that the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and
Week 2: Lecture
Cognitive Changes in Aging
Cognitive changes in aging, especially those related to the pattern of decline in intelligence, is an extremely important topic in gerontology. It is not uncommon for older persons to express a concern or even a fear of losing their cognitive abilities (i.e., fear of becoming "senile"). To learn more about one cause of mental decline, read the Alzheimer's Fact Sheet
from the Alzheimer's Association.
Few topics in gerontology have been researched as much as intelligence and aging. Summarizing dozens (more likely hundreds) of studies on this topic over the past half century presents only a glimpse of the total picture. However, some of the major observations and conclusions follow: Intelligence has been defined as the capacity to learn; however, there are many slightly varying definitions.
Robert Butler, the first director of the National Institute on Aging, emphasized that physicians tend to give low priority to the health needs of older people. Harris provides two major reasons for this tendency:
· There is a common misconception that being unwell is a natural part of being old.
· The incurable nature of the chronic illnesses of the elderly frustrates medical practitioners, who derive satisfaction from curing patients.
But, maybe the following story exemplifies the physician behavior most clearly:
An eighty-five year old female visited her doctor and complained about a chronic pain in her left leg. The physician kind of chuckled and in a somewhat patronizing tone said, "Well, Mary, what do you expect of a lady your age?" Mary hesitated, reflected a bit, and replied, "You know the funny thing is that my right leg is the same age and it hasn't given me a bit of trouble.
Clearly, older persons deserve the same attention and care as patients of any other age.
Week 2: Lecture
Intelligence and Aging
What seems to be the most controversial aspect of intelligence is just what comprises the most critical components of the ability to learn. Is it memory? Problem-solving? Abstract thinking? Reasoning? Speed? Clearly, intelligence involves all of these elements but which are most fundamental? (As a tangent to the above discussion, psychologists also have espoused other components or forms of intelligence such as social, emotional, artistic, kinesthetic intelligence, etc.; but these aspects of intelligence fall outside the scope of this discussion.)
Intelligence Quotient (I.Q.) is a measure of intelligence. When we discuss the pattern of development and/or decline of intelligence in aging, of course, it is I.Q. measure that purportedly discerns this pattern.
In gerontology intelligence has been studied in a fairly unique way. As is likely evident in the aforementioned discussion of intelligence, there are a number of abilities, sometimes referred to as primary mental abilities, that comprise this construct. However, in gerontology these abilities often have been grouped into crystallized (pragmatics) and fluid (mechanics) intelligence.
There is widespread support among gerontologists that crystallized intelligence tends to be maintained or even increase with aging (until one's seventies or eighties). Fluid intelligence peaks somewhere between maturity and middle age and then begins a gradual decline until later life when the decline beings a more precipitous drop. The image at left, from Kart, shows one version of the pattern of increase and decrease in crystallized and fluid intelligence with aging. This is a rather conservative representation of the pattern; other gerontologists have concluded that crystallized intelligence tends to continue to increase during middle age and into one's seventies or eighties.
Now permit me to caution you regarding the above discussion. No component of intelligence falls clearly within either crystallized or fluid intelligence. For example, recalling eleven or so numbers presented randomly is an exercise in basic recall memory (more related to fluid intelligence); however, one can develop strategies (school-like learning) to remember random numbers. Also, basic memory is involved in developing vocabulary, remembering historical events, etc. In summary, the two categories of intelligence overlap significantly .
Note the information on memory and learning in your text. Of special importance are her comments regarding the slowing down of learning new information in later life.
Finally, in regard to measured intelligence, longitudinal studies have tended to support the maintenance of intelligence into the later years. Cross-sectional studies show older people performing less well on intelligence tests than younger people. These discrepancies in performance related to research design were especially apparent in research up through the 1980's.
Week 3: Overview
Introduction
This week we are focusing on psychological, social, and cultural aspects of aging.
Three major topics will be focused on in addressing the psychological aspects of aging:
1. Several prominent theories of psychosocial development
2. Neugarten's research on personality types
3. Erikson's classic model of the eight stages of psychosocial development
This is not a comprehensive presentation of the myriad psychological theories of aging; rather, it is a focus on some of the theories that have served as a foundation for much of the research in this area. The three theories that follow also are discussed in your text.
Additionally, social and cultural aspects of aging will be discussed, such as age norms and societal attitudes toward the elderly. The video "Boomer Century" presents how aging has changed as the baby boom generation approaches old age.
Learning Outcomes
· Identify major strengths and weakness of the three psychosocial theories introduced
· Be able to provide brief descriptions of Neugarten's eight personality types and level of life satisfaction associated with each
· Identify Erikson's three stages of adult development and the challenges associated with each stage's psychosocial crisis
· Relate how age norms for older persons are influenced by the flexibility or inflexibility of social time clocks
· Identify theories of cultural universals suggested by Simmons, and Cowgill and Holmes
Week 3: Lecture
Psychosocial: Disengagement Theory
As we begin this week, we are going to discuss the psychosocial development theories: disengagement, activity, and continuity. We'll start with disengagement theory. Read the summary of major postulates and corollaries of the Disengagement Theory
.
Few theories have had as much impact on research and discussion in the field of aging as the Disengagement Theory. The University of Chicago research team that conducted the Kansas City Study of Adult Life presented their findings in Growing Old, published in 1961. Notice in reviewing the postulates and corollaries (and any other materials that you study) that the researchers appeared confident that they had a definitive explanation of how one tends to grow older from a psychosocial perspective.
Pay careful attention to the definition of the Disengagement Theory. Your instructor would argue that if the definition is taken literally, disengagement begins at birth because relationships are changing, including being severed, throughout one’s life. Cumming and Henry, the authors of Growing Old, would counter that these changes occur more often and tend to be more significant in later life.
Several other aspects of the Disengagement Theory merit special attention.
1. Notice that researchers do not mention a specific chronological age in their postulates and corollaries. Disengagement is said to occur if one lives long enough, but it occurs at different ages for different people.
2. Disengagement is stated to be inevitable.
3. Very much related to the second point, disengagement is viewed to cut across cultures. The precise nature of disengagement may vary, but it is present in every culture.
The concept of disengagement today is quite different than it was in 1961. Few, if any, gerontologists would agree totally with the original postulates and corollaries. As an assignment following this discussion, share with your classmates a total of at least three postulates and/or corollaries with which you disagree. Also mention at least one or two that you tend to support.
There remain some aspects of the Disengagement Theory that are widely supported. For many, and maybe most people, there is a decrease in energy as one grows older. There tends to be a slowing down. In turn, there tends to be a turning in toward more introspection and less energy exchange with one’s environment. However, the most important point to emphasize is that disengagement, if it occurs at all, is different for different people. The age at which it occurs and the extent to which it occurs vary. Furthermore, throughout one’s life, but especially during middle age and later life, one may regularly disengage and then reengage.
Week 3: Lecture
Psychosocial: Activity Theory
The Disengagement Theory was formally developed as a result of the Kansas City Study of Adult Life and emphasized a mutual withdrawal of the individual and society. Conversely, Activity Theory was less formally developed, in part a reaction to the Disengagement Theory, and emphasized active engagement on the part of the individual. To those who espoused the Activity Theory, one ages best by maintaining one’s activities as much as possible and by replacing or substituting activities for those that one can no longer do. The National Institute on Aging (NIA) supported the Activity Theory in one of its Age Pages on exercise, reporting that if exercise could be made available in pill form, it would be the single most widely prescribed medication. Exercise is an important component but the Activity theory is much broader (e.g., includes social activities and other forms of involvement).
Week 3: Lecture
Psychosocial: Continuity Theory
Harris describes Continuity Theory as a formal elaboration of the Activity Theory. She then proceeds to describe aspects of the theory that your instructor views as more widely supported. Continuity (“continuation”) with one’s former activities is probably the essence of Continuity Theory as espoused by most of its advocates. In other words, one tends to age best by maintaining one’s overall life style from middle age as much as possible. Psychologists have long held that an individual’s core personality tends to be formed early in childhood and certainly by middle age. The continuity theory is, in part, an extension of this premise.
Your instructor and many other gerontologists give some support to the Continuity Theory. However, much like the Disengagement and Activity theories, the Continuity Theory has its limitations. For example, what if an individual develops numerous self-defeating behaviors in mid-life (e.g., excessive drinking, poor sleep patterns, a sedentary lifestyle, etc.)? Does it make sense to maintain this pattern into later life? Your instructor asserts that virtually any gerontologist would answer with a resounding, “No!!"
In summary, the three psychosocial theories of aging and virtually all the theories in this area that followed yielded insights and partial explanations of desirable psychological aging. However, none of the theories approaches a complete explanation of aging well.
Week 3: Lecture
Neugarten's Personality Types
In 1968, in the midst of widespread controversy surrounding the disengagement theory, Bernice Neugarten and some of her University of Chicago associates embarked on an intensive study of personality and aging. The number of older persons involved in the study was not impressive (only fifty-nine), but the thoroughness of the study has made it one of the most cited in the field. After extensive data collection and analysis, Neugarten et al. described eight personality types in four broad categories.
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Personality Type |
Pattern |
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Integrated |
Re-organizer Focused Disengaged |
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Armor-Defended |
Holding On Constricted |
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Passive-Dependent |
Succorance-Seeker Apathetic |
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Unintegrated |
Disorganized |
See the discussion of “personality patterns” in your text and relate it to Neugarten’s Personality Patterns in Aging, shown below.
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Personality Type |
Characteristics of the type |
Role Activity |
Life Satisfaction |
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Integrated |
Well-adjusted persons with high self-regard, mature, maintain comfortable degree of control over life's impulses |
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Reorganizer |
Competent people, engaged in many activities, who substitute new activities for lost ones |
High |
High |
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Focused |
Persons selective in their activities and who concentrate on one or two roles |
Medium |
High |
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Disengaged |
Those who voluntarily move away from role commitments and social relations; they are calm, contented, and withdrawn |
Low |
High |
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Armored-defended |
Striving and ambitious persons with high defenses against anxieties associated with aging |
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Holding-on |
Those who try to maintain patterns of middle age as long as possible; to them old age is a threat |
High or Medium |
High |
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Constricted |
Persons who defend themselves against aging by limiting their social contacts and trying to conserve their energies |
Medium or Low |
High or Medium |
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Passive-Dependent |
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Succorance-seeking |
Those who are dependent on others for emotional support |
High or Medium |
High or Medium |
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Apathetic |
Persons who are passive and submissive |
Low |
Medium or Low |
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Unintegrated |
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Disorganized |
Persons with defects in psychological functions |
Low |
Medium or Low |
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Source: Adapted from Bernice L. Neugarten, Robert J. Havighurst, and Sheldon S. Tobin, "Personality and Patterns of Aging." In Bernice L. Neugarten (ed.), Middle Age and Aging. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1968, pp. 173-177. |
On the first exam there will be several objective items and a short essay item related to Neugarten’s personality types. Providing a brief description of each and the level of life satisfaction associated with each will be a part of an essay item.
Some often cited observations that emerged from the Neugarten study follow:
1. Older persons are a highly diverse population.
2. Personality tends to be a fairly stable construct. In other words., there tends to be a high degree of continuity of personality from youth to mid-life to older adulthood.
3. There is a wide range of very different personality types, each of which may adapt well to later life in terms of life satisfaction and happiness.
Research design and study methods have sometimes yielded different results in personality studies. For example longitudinal studies have mostly supported the continuity or maintenance of intelligence and other aspects of personality with age. Cross-sectional studies have often noted significant differences in intelligence and other aspects of personality between older persons and other age groups.
Week 3: Lecture
Erikson's Psychosocial Stage of Development
Probably all of you have had some exposure to Erik Erikson’s eight stages of psychosocial development. Erikson is a developmental psychologist. He might be labeled a neo-Freudian because he borrowed from Freud’s model of development from birth through adolescence and extended it over the entire life course. He is often credited with being one of the first psychologists to emphasize a continuation of psychological development in adulthood.
In this class it is Erikson’s three stages of adult development that are emphasized and that you will be responsible for knowing. See the Summary of Erikson’s Eight Stages of Psychosocial Development
and Arlene Harder's article, " The Developmental Stages of Erik Erikson
." Become familiar with the psychosocial crisis associated with each of the adult stages. Also, know the challenges associated with each crisis
Early Adulthood Erikson’s psychosocial crisis of early adulthood is intimacy and solidarity versus isolation. The challenge associated with this “crisis” is to develop intimate relationships, especially but not limited to a special relationship with a significant other. Also, there may be a kind of intimacy and solidarity related to devotion to a cause, such as benefiting mankind. In Erikson’s paradigm if one does not experience this intimacy in early adulthood, one may become isolated. Becoming isolated not only poses problems during this stage but may also result in later adjustment difficulties.
Middle Adulthood The psychosocial crisis of middle adulthood is generativity versus self-absorption. There are two major challenges during this stage.
One challenge is to leave a legacy primarily through meaningful work, doing things that make a difference in improving the world. From your instructor’s perspective, one’s attitude is extremely important in dealing with this challenge. For example, an automobile assembly line worker who routinely turns a couple of screws to secure a motor might view one’s job as mindless and devoid of meaning. However, that same worker might find significant meaning in what he or she does by realizing that the excellent vehicle that one has been a part of making may be a great source of pride to the owner, may be an indispensable source of transportation, etc.
The second challenge associated with generativity is most often considered that of having and nurturing children. Leaving a legacy in the form of a child who has been cared for with love and devotion is a very meaningful legacy for most.
Erikson likely would not limit the experience of generativity to meaningful work and nurturing one or more children. One can leave a legacy through devotion to church or religion, to virtue and/or other ideals, etc. However, the essence of generativity is in some ways the focus on leaving an imprint for posterity.
Later Adulthood The psychosocial crisis of later adulthood is integrity versus despair. The two major challenges of achieving integrity according to Erikson are accepting one’s life as it has been lived and accepting death.
Accepting one’s life as lived means essentially that one can acknowledge mistakes or shortcomings and still view oneself as “okay.” One can also take pride in his or her achievements, contributions, virtues, etc. On balance, however, one can say it has been a good and meaningful life. It is very interesting to note that at roughly the period that Erikson was formally espousing his theory in the late 1950’s and early 1960’s, Robert Butler, the first Director of the National Institute on Aging, was writing about the significance of life review for older persons. Life review appears to be very closely related to Erikson’s process of accepting one’s life as it has been lived, even while acknowledging shortcomings, mistakes, etc.
Accepting death is the second component of achieving integrity in later life. Robert Butler once noted that often near middle age one begins to look at one’s life not so much in terms of the number of years one has lived since birth but more in terms of the years that may be remaining before death. This acceptance is viewed not as a morbid preoccupation with death but rather a recognition and acceptance of one’s own mortality.
To fail to achieve integrity in later life is to experience despair. Despair seems to convey incompleteness, frustration, and unhappiness. Integrity on the other hand conveys wholeness, consonance, harmony, and genuineness.
Summary Very few psychologists today would agree with the orderly progression of Erikson’s psychosocial crises and outcomes. For example, many young adults may have exemplary personality integrity, and, as Erikson notes, some older persons may primarily experience despair, rather than achieving integrity. Nonetheless, Erikson’s paradigm has been a major contribution to the recognition that psychological changes, often characterized by growth, are occurring throughout one’s life. Erikson’s stages of development also have helped trigger additional research in developmental psychology; and there is considerable overlap among many of the theories.
Week 3: Lecture
Social and Cultural Aspects of Aging
University gerontology programs are often housed within social science departments, and frequently the introductory course within a program revolves around social gerontology. Clearly, the social milieu under which one ages can have a profound affect on the aging process. Easily an entire course could be devoted to the social and cultural aspects of aging, but our emphasis will be directed only to a discussion of age norms and to some observations of cultural universals.
Week 3: Lecture
Age Norms
Your text points out that Rosow concluded from his studies that norms for older persons tend to be more ambiguous (i.e., less clearly defined than norms for younger persons). As you already have observed, the Disengagement Theory essentially concurs and adds that as one ages and has less contact with others, one is less governed by social norms.
Others have observed that social norms in general appear to be undergoing considerable change. Study the attachment that I have titled “ Social Time Clock
,” sometimes credited to Bernice Neugarten. Its significance is that society expects certain events to occur within a range of specific time periods. If one experiences a given life event at roughly the appropriate time, there tends to be positive social sanctions or approval. On the other hand, if one experiences a life event outside a “prescribed” range, there tends to be considerable disapproval. To what extent do you think the events depicted on the social time clock have a significant impact on the behavior of people in the United States today? Actually, many observers, including Bernice Neugarten herself, emphasize that the social time clock has become far more flexible. We do not tend to be nearly as influenced by it as was true even fifty years ago.
As an example of a more flexible social time clock, study the example of the comparison of the expectations of the age occurrence of specific events in the 1950’s to the expectations in the 1970’s on the handout titled “ Age Ranges for the Timing of Age-Related Transitions, Table 3.1
.” Would there be an even greater trend toward flexibility today?
Awareness of the above trends can be potentially helpful to all of us, but especially older persons. For example, maybe the age of peak performance in a career, the age of marrying or remarrying, and/or the age of retirement can aptly occur anytime. And maybe one can remain “good-looking” at almost any age.
Of course, there can be significant gains and losses associated with a flexible versus a more rigid social time clock. Flexibility lends itself to individuality, doing things at times one wants to do them without a great deal of societal constraint. However, this individuality likely means that life has far less security, which is often associated with predictability. The reverse is true in regard to a rigid social time clock: There tends to be high predictability and security in exchange for individuality.
Week 3: Lecture
Cultural Aspects of Aging
Earlier in this course we emphasized what is probably the most important cultural shift in the United States, and perhaps most other western countries, in viewing older persons: From roughly the mid-1700’s and accelerating over time to today, we have shifted from gerontophilia (respecting, even revering older persons) to gerontophobia (fearing and deprecating growing older and older persons). Older people generally tend not to be esteemed in the United States today.
On the more positive side, great inroads in reducing poverty among older persons was brought about by the Social Security Act of 1935. Medicare (1965) and other legislation of the 1960’s have helped improve the quality of life for millions of older people.
In addition to taking a look (above) at a few of the cultural aspects of aging in the United States, reviewing cultural universals in regard to older people might facilitate an understanding of that age group. Your text provides two prominent theories of these cultural universals: influence and security. Study the lists of cultural universals presented in your text.
Boomer Century, Part 1
As part of the discussion on cultural aspects of aging, view this video titled, "Boomer Century." Again, use the form
provided to take notes on the major points of the video.
· Click here to view Boomer Century, part 1
Week 4: Lecture
Sexuality and Aging
Now watch the video titled, "Sexuality and Aging." You may again use the form
provided to keep track of the major points of the film.
· Click here to view the "Sexuality and Aging" video.
Is there a topic more focused upon and widely discussed in our culture than sex? However, when you think about sexuality in our society, the emphasis tends to be on youth up through maybe middle age. How often have you thought about sexuality and later life?
Most of us already are aware of some of the key principles related to sexuality and aging, but here is a brief review; namely that sexuality is highly individualized, that the pattern of orgasmic capacity is well established, and that sexuality in later life may be expressed quite differently than earlier in life.
The wide diversity in sexual preferences and styles need not be discussed here, except to say that there may be more diversity among individuals of any given age than there is among different age groups. Also, elaboration on what is known about orgasmic capacity is clear: that males tend to peak in their late teens, or so, and that females may peak closer to their mid-thirties. For you males in the class, you are fully aware of the precipitous decline that occurs after your teens, right?? Hogwash!! For both males and females the decline is very gradual and is more gradual for females than for males.
Next, we'll look at trends in sexuality and aging.
Week 4: Lecture
Trends in Sexuality
Our focus is on sexuality in later life. There have been reports (e.g., Duke Longitudinal Study) of a small number of older persons having sexual intercourse more frequently than they did at earlier ages. However, this is highly unusual. Typically, the frequency of coitus declines with age. Also, the expression of love and sexuality often involves more touching, caressing, and warmth, aside from coitus. The importance of non-coital sex as an expression of love and sexuality is reported widely in the literature.
The theme of sexuality is probably a good jumping-off point to discuss the importance of “self-fulfilling prophecy” in human behavior and in social research. Individuals who expect a decline or absence of sexuality in later life as normal may not attempt to exercise sexual behavior. At the other extreme, individuals who want to demonstrate to themselves and others that they can become increasingly sexually active may do that. Nonetheless, in a physiological sense, orgasmic capacity tends to decline with age.
Other widely researched areas of sexuality and aging include the following: Men tend to be aroused more slowly, tend to have less firm erections, and to ejaculate less semen. Females also may become aroused less quickly and likely secrete less lubricant. Even with these changes, for many (maybe most) individuals the whole range of sexuality can continue to be highly gratifying in later life.
I'll conclude our discussion of sexuality and aging by relating one popular source for information on the topic. A couple of decades ago, a female, reportedly in her 50’s, submitted a letter to columnist Ann Landers saying that if most women in their 50’s and beyond were to be honest with themselves and their lovers, they would say that they were no longer interested in sexual intercourse and other forms of sexual expression. Ann Landers used that letter as an invitation for older readers to share their views on the subject. Over several years of responses, readers were pretty evenly divided on the subject (i.e., about half of the readers agreed with the initial writer that no longer wanted sex and about half remained interested, some even highly enthusiastic). Clearly the Ann Landers sample was not scientific: there is no way to verify that the respondents were all over the age of 50; and self-reports inherently have limitations. Nonetheless, the data that were gathered for her column raises very interesting questions for further research.
Week 4: Lecture
Living Environments of the Elderly
Clearly, most older persons live in their own homes. For decades, most (approximately three-fourths of) older persons have owned the homes where they reside. Most older men live with their spouses until they die. The living arrangements for females are more varied. Nearly half of the females over age 65 will become widowed and live alone or occasionally with other family members.
One significant study investigated the living arrangement preferences of older persons and reported them in the following rank order:
1. Top preference was living at home.
2. When some caregiving was needed, the preference was to remain at home with care provided preferably by one or more family members or, if necessary, a paid helper.
3. The next preference was remaining in one’s own home and attending an adult day care center, as needed.
4. The next preference was some form of long-term care (e.g., assisted living or nursing home).
5. What seems surprising to many is that the last preference was moving in with a family member.
Do you think the findings of the above study remain generally true? In the discussion section of this session share your views.
Studies such as the one cited above might help shape one’s perceptions regarding some tendencies of older people. Being aware of these findings allows individuals in a helping role to be less surprised when observing the same preferences. However, it cannot be overemphasized that each older person is an individual; generalities may not apply at all. Without question each individual may have a very different set of preferences.
As previously noted, only about 5 percent of the older adult population resides in long-term care facilities. Family members remain the primary caregivers of older persons. The “caregiver burden” can become quite heavy and caregiver relief may be needed. Tapping into formal organizations (e.g. homemaker, health care, transportation agencies, etc.) may become necessary or advisable. Some of these potentially helpful agencies will be highlighted in the "Programs and Services" lecture during Week Eight.
