Stage 4

Solution Management

III. Project Management

What is a project? A project is an effort with specific starting and ending points that concludes with a result. Building a house is a project, completing a research paper is a project, and planning a wedding is a project. Key characteristics of all projects are a timeline, resources, tasks, person effort ("man hours"), and dependencies. The  Project Management Institute  is an excellent resource for project management information. Furthermore, PMI has a professional certification program that requires certified project managers to update their knowledge of new developments in the field of project management.

For our purposes, let's use the project we discussed in module 2: streamlining the invoice payment process. Figure 3.8 shows the high-level scope of the proposed solution (without technical details) to highlight its key elements.

Figure 3.8 Invoice Processing Automation Project

Rather than creating a detailed project plan, we will discuss general aspects of the plan.

Elements	Details
timeline	January 3, 2008–September 30, 2008
resources	Budget: $675,000
effort	1,200 hours
dependencies	(These would be detailed in the project plan.) Examples: Software cannot be installed until the new file servers are installed, data must be standardized across functions, user training cannot happen until the software application is finalized.
tasks	(These would be defined in detail in the project plan.)

For our purposes, we will assume that the correct business process redesign occurred and the best solution was chosen. So what do we need from a project management perspective? It would seem easy enough: plan the work and work the plan, and voilà! The solution is implemented on schedule and on budget.

Of course, anyone who has participated in a project knows that it rarely happens that way. Building a house gets complicated because two solid weeks of rain delays the pouring of the concrete. You thought you could conduct your term paper research on Saturday, but a friend had a ticket for the big game and you could not decline his offer; therefore, you didn't gather the information so you could begin writing your paper on Sunday. And planning a wedding—there are so many potential issues there—the bridesmaids hate their dresses, the caterer backed out, the organist broke her wrist, and so forth. You get the idea; even the best-planned project will have challenges.

Before moving ahead with our discussion of project management, it is important that we define a few key terms.

Term	Definition	Examples
project scope	describes the work that must be accomplished to complete the project	three-bedroom, two-bath house completed and occupancy certificate obtained; research paper submitted to professor; wedding held
project manager	"expert" responsible for planning, managing, and controlling all aspects of a project	construction manager; student; wedding planner
project management	"the process of scoping, planning, staffing, organizing, directing, and controlling the development of an acceptable system at a minimum cost within a specified time frame" (Whitten & Bentley, 2008, p. 80)	the construction plan for building the house; the "to-do" list for researching and writing the research paper; the wedding planning notebook
project deliverables	concrete, tangible outcomes, results, or products generated as a result of a project	drywall completed on new house construction; first draft of research paper written; wedding invitations printed
milestones	key dates when specific, critical tasks or groups of activities are completed	March 15: electrical wiring completed; May 1: research completed; June 1: reception hall booked
contingency	anticipating delays or problems, and having an alternative solution or strategy planned	backup plumber and electrician identified in case primary contractors are unavailable

Characteristics of a sound project plan include:

· easy to understand—Tasks and deliverables are specifically presented in commonly understood, well-defined terms.

· readable—Graphical representation follows standard structure and layout.

· communicated to all key stakeholders—Those involved and affected know what the plan is.

· appropriate to the project's size, complexity, and importance—The plan is not overly involved or complicated for a minor, small-cost, short-term project, and is not too general and abbreviated for a complex, high-cost, long-term, high-priority project.

· prepared by the team—Project team members contribute to the project plan development, rather than a project manager developing in a vacuum.

Having a well-prepared project plan can help reduce the risk of project failure, but it cannot eliminate the possibility of failure. There are many reasons why even a well-planned project can fail. Some common project problems result from mismanagement (Whitten & Bentley, 2008, p. 81):

· failure to establish upper-management commitment to the project

· poor expectations of management (expectations of users and managers not in agreement, or expectations change over the life of the project)

· premature commitment to budget and schedule

· overly optimistic

· mythical man-month

· inadequate people-management skills

· failure to adapt to business change

· insufficient resources

· failure to work the plan

As you review this list, how many of these causes are related to hardware, software, or other technology issues? Right—none! This indicates that it is frequently the human aspect of projects that creates most of the problems and greatly increases the risk of failure. Therefore, the importance of paying attention to the softer skills of managing people in IT cannot be overemphasized.

A. Project Management Dilemma

Figure 3.9 shows four variables that provide a constant challenge and balancing act in project management.

Figure 3.9 Project Management Variables

Mouseover the labels for more information.

If you look back at the list of causes of project failures, you will see that many connect to one or more of these interrelated elements. For example, premature commitment to budget and schedule will definitely affect the time and cost variables. Let's relate this cause to our earlier examples.

Project	Cause of Failure
building a house	estimating the construction budget with insufficient research into the current costs of construction materials, or assuming stable pricing
preparing a research paper	planning your schedule to complete the paper without considering other course assignments or personal requirements
planning a wedding	establishing a budget for "dear old dad" without obtaining the costs of catering the reception

A critical success factor for projects is having a sound project management methodology; however, the specific methodology used is less important than having a structured process (Dorsey, 2000). The project methodology provides the structure and processes to define and plan a project, monitor its progress, and evaluate its end result. A standard methodology also provides for consistency, allows the process to be refined and improved over time by incorporating lessons learned, and increases the transferability of skills among team members. Let's look at a project management framework from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Information Services and Technology Group's website.

Figure 3.10 MIT's Project Management Framework

Mouseover the center area to enlarge it.

Source: Adapted from Massachusetts Institute of Technology (n.d.)

An extremely important part of project management is monitoring (or tracking) and controlling the progress of the project. The project plan provides the road map for the project. The project manager is responsible for monitoring to ensure that tasks are completed on schedule, resources are available as planned, and key milestones and deliverables are met. Routine status reports are an important part of tracking the progress of the project. This monitoring process helps the project manager keep time, cost, and scope in balance.

Project managers must also address team issues to help guide the project team. People should be recognized for their contributions and successes and held accountable for failing to meet commitments. Far too often, members of project teams know things aren't going well but bolster themselves by vowing to get caught up next week. Addressing problems as early as possible in the project allows time to make corrections and help keep the project on target.

B. Scope Management

Failure to manage the scope of a project will result in scope creep—the natural tendency of projects to become bigger than originally intended, with detrimental impact on cost, time, and outcome. For example, while building a house, we decide to add a home theater in the basement; you decide to add a PowerPoint presentation to your research paper; and the wedding reception entertainment changes from Cousin George, the DJ, to an eight-piece jazz ensemble.

To minimize inadvertent scope creep, effective project managers define a change management process specifically related to the project. (This is different from the organizational change management strategies that we will discuss later in this module, which relate to generally managing the changes within the organization that a new solution may create.) At the risk of oversimplifying this concept, for the purposes of our discussion, we are talking about a structured process (part of an overall project management methodology) to address changes in requirements or expectations on the specific project outcome.

As you can imagine, changes affect resources. A change may require additional staff hours, hardware and/or software costs, testing, systems configurations, and/or the assessment of impact on related IT components. There are times when these changes are necessary to maximize the intended business solution, address some unforeseen problem, or meet a changing business strategy or requirement. Having a structured methodology in place means that the change is treated as a potential mini-project:

· The requirements are documented and analyzed.

· The impact (time, money, and other resources) is analyzed, and the effects on budget and schedule are defined.

· At this point, the business sponsor or project owner may make a determination as to whether or not to proceed with the change.

In many larger organizations, a change control board (CCB) exists for just such situations. Representatives from the affected areas review the documentation and make a decision as to whether or not to proceed. If the decision is to proceed, the additional impact is inserted into the project plan, and appropriate adjustments are made.

In module 2, we mentioned an alternative in our invoice-processing solution of having orders received electronically by using EDI. This may be a great idea and provide maximum efficiency; however, it adds significantly to the original project scope and cost. Applying a project management change process would include evaluating the impact of this request and making an appropriate business decision as to whether or not to proceed.

If we look back at our definition of project manager, it seems like this individual bears most of the responsibility for making projects successful. Although he or she may delegate various tasks, the buck frequently stops with the project manager. Because of the many hats project managers wear, the variety of skills they must have, and the constant juggling act they must perform, it is no wonder that highly capable and skilled project managers can be scarce and are in great demand. Let's look at the skills, or competencies, a good project manager must have.

Table 3.2 Project Manager Competencies

Competencies	Description
business achievement	· connects projects with corporate strategy and objectives · partners with and involves stakeholders throughout the process · provides quality perspective
people management	· communicates effectively · facilitates team process · coaches team members to work cohesively and fosters a spirit of collaboration · provides resources and training to develop team members · prepares, monitors, and controls project plan—gathers input and adjusts as needed
problem-solving	· displays initiative to show creativity and innovation · calculates risks and prepares contingencies · applies critical thinking to problem resolutions · provides systems perspective
influence	· understands and is sensitive to interpersonal motivations and behaviors of others · is aware of corporate political landscape and can navigate it effectively · understands the implications of project decisions and manages risks · knows how to enlist cooperation and build consensus among business managers, users, and IT staff
self-management	· displays self-confidence, but with humility · "walks the talk" · has personal accountability · works well under pressure and adverse conditions

Source: Whitten & Bentley (2008, pp. 82-83)

Depending on the organization and scope of a project, there may be both a business project manager and a technical project manager assigned. As we discussed in module 2, it is essential that the business owns the solution. IT's role is to help the business identify the best technology solution for the business problem. Regardless of whether one or two individuals perform this role, the critical skills they need to address the issues we have discussed are the ability to (1) manage people and (2) manage the project effectively. The project team can be staffed with technical expertise, but it is much more difficult, if not impossible, to make up for a project manager's shortcomings in the areas of understanding the business and addressing the human aspects. Project managers must also address any team issues that arise to help guide the project team.

References

Dorsey, P. (2000). Top 10 reasons why systems projects fail. Retrieved April 9, 2007, from http://www.dulcian.com

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (n.d.). Information services and technology project management. Retrieved April 21, 2007, from http://web.mit.edu/ist/pmm/framework.html

US Department of Justice, Justice Management Division (2003, January). The Department of Justice systems development life cycle guidance document. Retrieved July 8, 2011, from http://www.justice.gov/jmd/irm/lifecycle/table.htm

Whitten, J. L., & Bentley, L. D. (2008). Introduction to systems analysis and design. New York: McGraw-Hill.

It is important to set a corporate strategy to identify your organization's priority objectives—where are we going, and how do we get there? Having a strategic plan in place, however, means that your work has just begun. The success of executing a business strategy depends on the quality of the organization's leadership—those who will guide the organization in the right direction.

Table 3.1 Perspectives on Leadership

Quote	Speaker	Source
"Leadership is a function of knowing yourself, having a vision that is well communicated, building trust among colleagues, and taking effective action to realize your own leadership potential."	Warren Bennis	Saladis (2006)
"The aim of leadership should be to improve the performance of man and machine, to improve quality, to increase output and simultaneously to bring pride of workmanship to people. Put in a negative way, the aim of leadership is not merely to find and record failures of men, but to remove the causes of failure to help people to do a better job with less effort."	W. Edwards Deming	Out of the Crisis(1982, p. 248)
"My definition of a leader…is a man who can persuade people to do what they don't want to do, or do what they're too lazy to do, and like it."	Harry S Truman, 33rd president of the United States	Legacee (2011)
"Leadership is the art of influencing and directing people in a way that will win their obedience, confidence, respect, and loyal cooperation in achieving a common objective."	US Air Force	The Cadet NCO Guide(n.d., p. 25)
"The task of a great leader is to get his people from where they are to where they have not been….Leaders must invoke an alchemy of great vision."	Henry Kissinger	Clawson (2003)
"Through years of study, teaching and working with people all over the world, from all walks of life, I have determined that leadership is: Communicating to people their worth and potential so clearly that they come to see it in themselves. It is the influence we have with others to help them discover their own voice, to find their own purpose, to make their unique contribution, and to release their potential, that truly defines leadership."	Stephen R. Covey	Khan (2005)

Although many factors can contribute to an organization's success or failure, leadership is certainly a critical success factor. The  Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Award  (MBNQA) provides seven criteria that organizations can use to assess their organizational effectiveness. It is no surprise that leadership is a key category; in fact, it is among the highest-weighted criterion for the Malcom Baldrige National Quality Award. The Baldrige National Quality Program recognizes that effective leadership is the linchpin of successful organizations. Organizations that apply to the Baldrige program must grapple with these questions, among others:

1. How well do our employees know our organization's mission (what we are trying to accomplish)?

2. How well does our leadership team use our organization's values to guide our organization and employees?

3. How well does our leadership team share information about the organization?

4. How effective are the organization's communications; i.e., are we assessing whether our messages are being well-received?

5. How well does our leadership team ask employees what they think?

A second criterion in the MBNQA assessment is strategic planning. Here, leaders must demonstrate

· that employees know the parts of the organization's plans that affect them and their work

· that employees know how to tell if they are making progress on their work group's part of the strategic plan

· that, as leadership planners for the future, they ask employees for their input

To reinforce the interrelationships, figure 3.1 shows the Baldrige Criteria Framework from a systems perspective.

Figure 3.1 Baldrige Criteria for Performance Excellence Framework: A Systems Perspective

Source: Adapted from Baldrige National Quality Program (2007, p. 5)

This framework reinforces many of the elements we have discussed in this course. Think back to the section about the competitive forces model, in which we discussed the impact of various elements of the business environment. You may recall that leadership is at the forefront of those elements and that it initiates the others. The effectiveness of leadership in these other areas will determine an organization's level of success.

Just as there are many definitions of leadership, many different leadership models, sets of characteristics, and clever acronyms have appeared over the years. One simple model that supports the leadership qualities we want to emphasize comes from James Clawson, author of Level Three Leadership: Getting Below the Surface. Clawson calls it the VCM model and uses it to illustrate three areas in which leaders demonstrate their ability to influence, as shown in figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2 Vision, Commitment, Managing Model

Source: Adapted from Clawson (2003, p. 37)

Vision is a critical component of leadership. Visioning is describing where the organization will be at some future time, which sets the direction in which the organization should move toward reaching the stated goal. Strategic planning is part of the process because it defines the route to achieving the vision. Critical leadership skills are required to help establish and convey that vision to the rest of the organization. The leadership skills required to be successful in this area include:

· identifying trends

· scanning the environment

· knowing what has happened in the past

· understanding where the organization is in the present

In module 1, we introduced a  general business model  that showed the variables affecting an organization. The critical leadership skills we are discussing now will give you the ability to accurately assess and respond to those variables.

Commitment involves garnering the dedication of others. This includes sharing your vision to get others involved with the direction and strategic objectives. Communication skills are critical and include the leader's ability to convey his or her message to others. But equally important is the leader's ability to listen to others. Part of gaining commitment is alignment—getting individuals to understand how they fit into the vision and how they contribute to meeting the organization's strategic objectives. Aligning individual goals with department goals that support the corporate goals is important to organizational success.

Management includes monitoring, measuring, directing, and controlling the organization. Skills required here include the ability to assess how well the organization is moving toward its vision and how well the strategy is being executed. Having effective measures in place enables leadership to course-correct as needed if the organization begins to stray. Recognition is also important here—rewarding and praising those who are helping to guide the organization and achieve the intended results (Clawson, 2003).

What should leaders do to create a sense of shared vision and commitment throughout the organization? If the vision and strategic plan for the organization are created behind closed doors and carefully filed away, how will employees know where the organization is going and what they must do to get it there? For example, a corporate vision for Comfy Chair may be to have the biggest share of the recliner market. The strategy that could lead to achieving that vision is to increase sales of Comfy Chair's new line of recliners by 12 percent per year for the next five years. Let's think about what the impact of that strategy would be throughout the organization, as shown in figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3 Levels of Leadership Affected by a Strategic Objective

Mouseover each element of this graphic to see the impact of Comfy Chair's strategic objective on each of these areas of the organization.

Figure 3.3 shows the impact of one strategic objective throughout the organization. Successfully achieving this objective requires the same degree of vision, commitment, and management throughout the leadership at each level or function of the organization.

One thing you might have noticed in the six leadership quotes presented in table 2.1 is that position or hierarchy was not mentioned. This was not an inadvertent omission; it indicates that individuals at any level in an organization can influence and exhibit leadership characteristics. Think about your own life experiences, and you can most likely identify some influential leaders who lacked positional power, yet others willingly followed their lead. "Leading strategic change can occur on at least three levels: organizational, work group, and individual" (Clawson, 2003, p. 39). Although leadership is traditionally thought of as being at the executive and most senior levels of an organization, leadership can, and should, be carried out throughout the organization. Sometimes the strongest influencers in an organization are not sitting in the executive office suite, but are running machinery, working in the production areas, or sitting in a lower-level supervisory position.

The next component of this module focuses on project management. We will discuss the human aspects of project management and learn how to ensure the success of your projects.

Leadership must provide a strong, consistent vision and guide the organization through the execution of its strategic plan. Effective project management practices will provide more consistent delivery of successful projects on time and within budget. Although little can be done to stem the rate or amount of change within organizations, effective strategies can help organizations and individuals adapt more readily to the changing environment and reduce disruption to productivity. Understanding the nature of change and implementing effective change management strategies will also enable organizations to increase their capacity to absorb changes.

What is change? You can find a variety of definitions, but typically they contain elements related to becoming different, replacing something, or changing the status quo. In today's business environment, more changes are coming at a faster rate than ever before. In 1970, Alvin Toffler, a sociologist, published his book Future Shock, in which he defined the concept of future shock as a personal perception of "too much change in too short a period of time" (p. 4.) He predicted that as technology and society change, the increased change rate will create a level of stress and information overload.

Here in the twenty-first century, we see the reality of Toffler's prediction. The impact of increased computing power, the Internet and the World Wide Web, wireless connectivity, corporate mergers and acquisitions, and global commerce is seen daily in news headlines. Robert Thomas and Warren Bennis, renowned management consultants and authors of numerous books on leadership, reference the need to "lead at lightning speed" in these turbulent times (Thomas & Bennis, 2002, p. 3).

Thomas and Bennis (2002, pp. 3-4) have found that speed leaders

· thrive in unstructured environments

· act decisively

· experiment to advance their knowledge and learn quickly

· quickly change the direction of their teams

· appear to exercise leadership skills effortlessly

· demonstrate a nimble flexibility

Let's look at figure 3.4, which illustrates a typical change model showing the process of change.

Figure 3.4 The Process of Change

In the current state, employees know the norms, or written and unwritten rules; they are comfortable (even if the situation isn't ideal). The future state is unknown and could be the result of implementing a new invoice-processing system, migrating to Windows Vista and Office 2007, or introducing a new management structure and reporting relationships. The transition state is murky and nebulous, and it is understandable that employees have concerns and don't want to venture there, even if the other side sounds promising.

A. Resistance

The reality is that human beings resist change, and it is unrealistic to think that we can eliminate resistance. The appropriate strategy is to anticipate resistance to change, recognize its characteristics, and seek to effectively lead and guide employees through a change while minimizing disruptions to productivity. So what happens during resistance, especially when employees don't want the change and feel they have no control over the situation?

Figure 3.5 Reaction to Change

Source: Adapted from Conner (1992, p. 133)

Figure 3.5 shows the common educational response to change. The degree to which individuals display these responses ranges from mild loss of productivity to major dysfunction. Also, the longer an employee has been in the current state, the more dramatic his or her response to change may be. Many of you have been in workplace situations in which a change was announced. Employees spend a great deal of time debating the impact of the change, trying to guess management's ulterior motive, and asking, "What does this mean to me?" Very little of the organization's work is being accomplished at this time.

A key factor in resistance is feeling that we have lost control over a situation. Also, change has a cumulative effect. Few of us are in the enviable position of being able to process one change at a time, get used to the new thing, and relax before tackling the next change. The reality is that individuals experience ongoing change at work, at home, at school, and in society at large. We each have our own capacity to assimilate change, and when we reach a saturation point, we have little energy to take on more changes.

Darryl Conner, founder of ODR, Inc., an organizational consulting firm, has spent a significant portion of his career researching the human response to organizational change. He has identified five characteristics of  resilient  people. His research shows that people who excel in these five areas are able to move more quickly through the change cycle, maintain higher levels of productivity, and apply lessons learned from one change initiative to the next.

Characteristic	Description
positive	sees opportunities and has a sense of self-assurance
focused	has a clear vision of what he or she wants to achieve
flexible	demonstrates the ability to be more fluid and less rigid when responding to uncertainty
organized	is able to develop structured approaches to ambiguous or unclear situations (Note: This use of the word organized focuses on making sense out of chaos rather than on being a "neat freak.")
proactive	is able to embrace or engage change rather than defend against it

Source: Conner (1992, p. 239)

Although some individuals may be more innately resilient than others, it is possible to increase one's capacity for change by focusing on these characteristics. Those who already have a high capacity for resilience will have an easier time increasing their capacity. Although those with a lower initial capacity may never reach high levels of resilience, they can improve.

Here is an example that illustrates the concept. Lance Armstrong is a phenomenal athlete with incredible aerobic capacity and is a world-class bike racer. For him, becoming a faster cyclist probably would not be a significant effort. On the other hand, you or I may be a recreational bike rider, but through dedicated practice, we could increase our bike-racing speed. We'll never be Lance Armstrong, but we have room for growth and improvement.

We can increase our resilience by learning from other, more resilient individuals, as well as learning from our own past experiences. When confronted with a difficult situation, drawing on what helped in the past better positions us to move through the current change. When leaders demonstrate vision, commitment, and management, they create a culture and environment in which employees can more quickly move through the transition state to the future state. This reduces anxiety and decreases the loss of productivity and dysfunctional behavior that organizational change can instigate.

Earlier, we mentioned that resistance stems, in part, from a sense of loss of control. In reviewing the characteristics of resilience, you will note that they can relate to regaining one's sense of control. For example, providing a sense of organization in ambiguous or vague situations can help restore a sense of control. Being proactive and looking for the opportunities a change may provide can also bring back a sense of control over one's future. Referring back to our invoice-automation example, suppose you are a clerk in the order-taking department, and this new, automated system is going to redefine the way orders are received. You will no longer have to type invoices. A resilient person would see the opportunity to learn a new software tool and increase his or her value to the department by organizing a plan to learn the new system. A less resilient person would see only the loss of a known job function, missing the possibility of future advancement.

B. Roles of Change

Resilient people also recognize that there are different roles within a change initiative and understand the dynamics and interrelationship of these roles. Less resilient people lack an understanding of these roles and are often perplexed about who is filling what role. Conner describes these roles in figure 3.6, below.

Figure 3.6 Organizational Change Roles

Mouseover each role for more information.

Although each of these roles plays a critical part in the effective implementation of organizational change, the sponsorship role is the key. In the section on leadership, we discussed the importance of leaders setting the vision and guiding the organization. Particularly in times of change, it is critical that the organization's leadership provides this essential sponsorship role. Sponsorship requires more than an all-hands e-mail notice announcing a new initiative; it requires sustained sponsorship throughout the life of the change. Without a consistent, ongoing message about the importance of the initiative, the benefits, the progress, and rewards for success and accountabilities for failures, the initiative is likely to fail. The targets are very comfortable in their known environment and resistant to venturing into the murky unknown or ill-defined future state. Without sustained sponsorship, employees will quickly revert to their comfort level.

Another element of sponsorship is cascading sponsorship. In  figure 3.3 , we illustrated the significance of a clear, consistent message reaching all areas of an organization to successfully achieve the strategic objective of increasing sales of Comfy Chair's new line of recliners. The corporate CEO may launch a new initiative and stress its importance to his or her executive team. The CEO expects that (1) progress will continue, and (2) the executive team knows what to do, and he or she moves on to the next critical business priority. A weak link or links in the executive team's sponsorship quickly dilutes the message as it cascades through the organization. The next thing we know, part of the organization has fallen into the " black hole "—no information is passed along, no accountabilities are in place to ensure compliance, and six months later, the change has not been implemented.

Leadership is a set of processes that creates organizations in the first place or adapts them to significantly changing circumstances. Leadership defines what the future should look like, aligns people with that vision, and inspires them to make it happen despite the obstacles (Kotter, 1996, p. 25).

In module 1, we introduced Carly Fiorina, former CEO of Hewlett-Packard. Now let's  listen to her speak about leadership and changing organizations , or you may  read a transcript of the interview .

The above quote from John Kotter and the interview with Fiorina highlight the important role leaders serve in guiding organizations as they respond to changing markets, industry conditions, a global change, and the ever-increasing role of technology.

Senior executives tend to move more quickly through the change process because of their position in the organization. William Bridges, a management consultant and author of Managing Transitions, calls this the marathon effect. Leadership can see the ultimate goal before others in the organization may even know that the race is on (Bridges, 2000, p. 30). Moreover, the change process may have been in their thoughts for some time, so instituting the change does not seem so precipitous to them. Therefore, senior management should be reminded that others in the organization have less information, will be resistant to letting go of the status quo, may lack a sense of the "big picture," and will need time to transition to the future state.

Kotter provides a model of change for leaders that can help provide sustained sponsorship and improve the likelihood of successful organizational change (p. 240):

1. Create a sense of urgency.

2. Create a guiding coalition.

3. Create a clear vision and strategy.

4. Over-communicate.

5. Reorganize to remove barriers to change.

6. Celebrate short-term wins.

7. Consolidate little wins into initiatives.

8. Incorporate changes into the culture.

Bridges and Mitchell (2000) provide "four Ps" for managing changes, as shown in figure 3.7.

Figure 3.7 Four Ps for Managing Transitions

Source: Adapted from Bridges and Mitchell (2000, p. 35)

Explaining the "why" or purpose of an initiative and describing its benefits and impact to the organization is an important part of communicating and cascading the message throughout the organization. Painting a picture is part of communicating leadership's vision, as is describing how the change will lead to the future state or outcome. Laying out a plan includes the necessary steps to implement the outcome. A phased approach for larger initiatives will help make the process more manageable and help employees see incremental successes and benefits along the way.

Perhaps the most important piece is identifying the parts that affected individuals will play within both the plan and the outcome. If people have a tangible role to perform and can understand how they contribute, the buy-in and acceptance of the change will come more easily. Defining this role can foster resilience. For example, long-term employees who were very comfortable and successful with the status quo may have a more difficult time transitioning to a new process, system, or structure than newer employees. In the past, these experienced workers have been the ones to train newcomers. Now, with a new system to be learned, they are back at square one and may resist implementation of a new system.

Defining their part in the transition can be very beneficial. These individuals can be valuable in helping to define training needs and identify areas to be addressed in the transition; enlisting their help can create champions for the new system. This will aid their transition and help them build more resilience. In addition, their championing the new system will help others through the transition, demonstrating leadership at all levels.

As we recognize that the rate or amount of change within organizations continues to accelerate, the strategies presented here can help organizations and individuals more readily adapt to the changing environment and reduce disruption to productivity. Three critical areas are:

· Leadership must demonstrate vision, commitment, and management to guide the organization and show sustained sponsorship for change initiatives.

· Project management practices with a focus on the people aspects will provide more consistent delivery of successful projects on time and within budget.

· Change management strategies to address the natural resistance to change and fostering resilience characteristics in the corporate culture can increase the organization's capacity to assimilate change more quickly.

The focus on the human aspects we have discussed in this module will help the organization as a whole and help ensure the effective implementation of technology solutions to support the business strategy. Ignoring the human aspects will cause even the best technology solution to fail in meeting its objectives.

https://cnx.org/contents/8KeV8AMJ@4/What-is-Project-Management

http://cnx.org/content/m31913/latest/

http://cnx.org/content/m31947/latest/

http://www.gartner.com/smarterwithgartner/gartners-top-10-technology-trends-2017/

http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/high_tech_telecoms_internet/the_internet_of_things

Chapter 9, 11, 13