Explain the Role of the DBA in the Business World

Professional Doctorates in Management:

Toward a Practice-Based Approach to Doctoral Education

SUBHABRATA BANERJEE University of Western Sydney

CLIVE MORLEY RMIT University

Professional doctorates, particularly in Australia and the UK, have been a significant growth area over the last 20 years. We discuss the emergence of professional doctorates in management education and their contribution to a more practice-based approach to doctoral education, with particular reference to the doctor of business administration degree (DBA). Professional doctorates were developed by some universities in the face of rising criticism about the relevance of PhD research to practice and the changing context and content of knowledge in the new economy. We conclude by discussing implications for doctoral education and directions for future research.

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The rapid emergence of the knowledge economy has changed the dynamics between governments, industry, and universities and influenced the edu- cational needs of managers and management re- searchers. Criticism of the relevance of doctoral education, especially the traditional PhD, has been mounting for some time (Lee, Brennan, & Green, 2009; McWilliam, Taylor, Thomson, Green, Max- well, Wildy, & Simons, 2002), and in response, uni- versities have sought new ways to deliver research training. In particular, the rapid expansion of pro- fessional doctorates appears to reflect an alternate mode of knowledge creation. Proponents of profes- sional doctorates claim that the training they pro- vide is more attuned to the real-world needs of managers because it focuses on practice in the workplace and is flexible enough to respond to the needs of the knowledge economy (Fenge, 2009; Usher, 2002). Here, we discuss the role of profes- sional doctorates in management education and

knowledge creation, with particular reference to the doctor of business administration (DBA) de- gree. Our main purpose is to discuss the emer- gence of the professional doctorate as a program designed to address criticisms of the increasing irrelevance of PhD programs to professional prac- tice. We identify the range of professional doctor- ates on offer in Australia, the United States, and United Kingdom, and, based on our experience of developing and managing a DBA program at a large Australian university, we outline some chal- lenges and opportunities for academics and pro- gram developers involved in professional doctor- ates in business. How does a professional doctorate program address the theory–practice di- vide that some scholars claim exists in doctoral research? What sort of knowledge was contrib- uted? What kind of research skills do senior man- agers require to improve their practice? Is the dis- tinction between a professional doctorate and a PhD becoming less important and unsustainable in Australia and the United Kingdom, as some have argued (e.g., Evans, Macauley, Pearson, &

We would like to thank Charmine Härtel and three anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments.

� Academy of Management Learning & Education, 2013, Vol. 12, No. 2, 173–193. http://dx.doi.org/10.5465/amle.2012.0159

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Tregenza, 2005)? There is little research that ex- plains the role of professional doctorates in pro- moting a more practice-based approach to doctoral education. Our work here attempts to fill this gap.

The paper is organized as follows: We first de- scribe the emergence of professional doctorates in the changing context and content of the knowledge economy. We then discuss the content and struc- ture of the doctor of business administration pro- gram developed by an Australian university. Next, we identify a range of professional doctorate pro- grams on offer in Australia, the United States, and United Kingdom, and describe their stated aims and outcomes. We conclude by discussing impli- cations for doctoral education and directions for future research.

KNOWLEDGE AND DOCTORAL EDUCATION

In the modern economy, a great deal of productiv- ity gains result from technologies of knowledge generation and information processing. This re- framing of knowledge as a source of productivity has had significant effects in terms of investments in education, research, and development. Univer- sities, as major centers of knowledge creation, have also responded to the needs of a knowledge economy by marketing their knowledge-creating capabilities and positioning themselves competi- tively in the knowledge market (Jessop, 2008). The Bologna Process in Europe informed significant re- form in higher education. The reforms aimed at creating a European Higher Education Area through the provision of adequate resources, cre- ating excellence in research and teaching, and increasing the international effectiveness of Euro- pean Universities (Dale, 2008). The concerted effort to modernize the knowledge industry meant that universities have come under increasing scrutiny, especially in their role as creators of knowledge through their doctoral programs, which are the most specialized vehicles of knowledge develop- ment. With increasing value put on knowledge as a key driver of productivity, universities all over the world face new expectations and pressures from governments, employers, and workers to pro- vide skill sets that can develop knowledge work- ers. Several universities attempted to respond to the challenges of educating professionals for the knowledge economy by creating new degree pro- grams of doctoral study, such as professional or executive doctorates.

Research produced by nonacademics (mana-

gers, consultants, writers in the business press) has had a greater impact on management practice than research produced in business schools (For- ster, 2007; Geuens, 2011). Some management schol- ars are critical of the kind of research produced by business schools. Pfeffer and Fong (2002) have ar- gued that business school research is more di- rected toward enhancing the prestige of the busi- ness school than at solving management problems per se. Bennis and O’Toole (2005) note that busi- ness schools have directed their efforts more to- ward obtaining academic credibility and focused on demonstrating the rigor and scientific method of their research rather than on its relevance to practitioners. Emphasis on theory rather than problem solving, narrow disciplinary focus, para- digmatic tendencies that favor theory validation rather than usefulness, problems of communica- tion and incommensurability of ideas and con- cepts were some of the explanations offered for the relatively low impact of business school research (Kelemen & Bansal, 2002; Pfeffer & Fong, 2002). Sev- eral scholars have argued that there is a signifi- cant “theory–practice” division in management re- search (Baldridge, Floyd, & Markoczy, 2004; Bartunek & Rynes, 2010; Burke & Rau, 2010; Hay, 2004; Schultz & Hatch, 2005; Shapiro, Kirkman, & Courtney, 2007). In an analysis of papers published in the top-5 management journals, Bartunek and Rynes (2010) found that nearly half the articles in their sample made no mention of implications for practice. If practical implications were discussed, they tended to be “tentative,” leaving little room for practitioners to seriously implement any recom- mendations arising from academic research.

The results of an AACSB study on sustaining scholarship in business schools also point to an industry–academic divide. The AACSB created the Doctoral Faculty Commission in 2002 to respond to the shortage of doctorally qualified faculty in busi- ness schools— between 1995 and 2000 there was a decrease of more than 19% in business doctorates awarded (AACSB, 2003). The AACSB report con- cluded that ensuring an adequate supply of busi- ness doctorates is essential for maintaining “the continued rigor of business education and re- search conducted in academic, business, and pub- lic policy institutions” (AACSB, 2003: 6). The report also claimed:

The scholarship role of business faculty is an essential and irreplaceable function because societies and markets turn to business

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schools for knowledge advances that reflect academic traditions of theory and method. An active pipeline of rigorous and relevant re- search output is especially crucial at this mo- ment as business practitioners seek indepen- dent, proven methods and ideas to shape their strategies and practices, and to improve the functioning of markets globally. In fact, independent, scholarly research is the essen- tial distinction of business schools versus other entities that produce business writings, and the reason business schools maintain their legitimacy within the research univer- sity community (AACSB, 2003: 10).

The report specifically mentions “relevant” re- search while reinforcing the position of the acad- emy as primary knowledge producers. The asser- tion that business school research output maintains the legitimacy of the discipline and the school within the wider research community is consistent with Pfeffer and Fong’s (2002) position, but the report’s claim that practitioners actively seek the knowledge produced by business schools is not substantiated—in fact Pfeffer and Fong (2002) showed that practitioners tend to use knowl- edge from “other entities that produce business writings,” rather than from business school re- searchers. A later AACSB (2008) report also be- moaned the lack of impact of academic business research on business practice. Professional doctor- ates, according to some scholars, can and should play a major role in bridging these gaps because professional doctorate research is closely con- nected with professional practice and the knowl- edge economy outside the university (Gill & Hoppe, 2009; Neumann, 2005).

Before we discuss the role of doctoral education in knowledge production it will be useful to de- scribe the nature of university-generated knowl- edge in the context of the knowledge economy and the different ways the term is currently being de- ployed. Does the valuation of knowledge in a knowledge economy differ from that in the acad- emy? A PhD, which is the highest level of academic qualification, is awarded for research that is deemed to make an original contribution to knowl- edge. The PhD has come under criticism for being too “inwardly focused,” inflexible, excessively nar- row and overspecialized, too focused on theory, for inhibiting multidisciplinary research, and for be- ing of little relevance to management practitioners (Evans, 2001; McWilliam et al., 2002; Pfeffer & Fong,

2002). For these critics, the type of knowledge gen- erated by a PhD is not consistent with what is needed by people, organizations, industries, and societies to excel in the knowledge economy. In Australia for example, a government report on graduate studies recommended that universities should develop postgraduate programs to “accom- modate the changing needs of students, industry, employers and professional bodies and consider introducing doctoral programs more suited to pro- fessional settings” (NBEET, 1989: 28). A government report on higher education in the United Kingdom made a similar observation, citing a lack of atten- tion to research for the professions (NCICHE, 1997). The funding mechanism of the new Research Ex- cellence Framework, currently scheduled to be im- plemented in 2014 in the United Kingdom, places a much stronger emphasis on the impact of research and will assess not just the academic impact but also the broader social, environmental, and eco- nomic benefits of research (Hodgkinson & Starkey, 2011). A report by the AACSB on doctoral programs in the United States also called for more “variabil- ity” in doctoral degree products (AACSB, 2003).

These reports seem to indicate that a different type of knowledge is needed to equip managers in the new economy. Researchers have distinguished between Mode 1 and Mode 2 knowledge (Gibbons, Limoges, Nowotny, Schwartzman, Scott, & Trow, 1994; Gibbons, 1998). Mode 1 refers to the knowl- edge that is traditionally produced in the acad- emy. It is based on an explanatory paradigm, dis- ciplinary based, theoretical, produced “for its own sake,” focused on “knowing that,” understanding “what is,” and its legitimacy is based on profes- sional activities such as publications in peer- reviewed journals and papers in conferences (Bourner, Bowden, & Laing, 2001; Usher, 2002; Van Aken, 2004, 2005). Mode 2 knowledge, on the other hand, refers to knowledge developed in the context of practice. It is a design science that focuses on knowledge designed to solve problems, likely to be produced in the workplace through reflection on practice, focuses on “knowing how,” is more prac- tical, legitimated through links with industry, and reflects the penetration of the market into the acad- emy (Usher, 2002; Van Aken, 2004, 2005). This dis- tinction has been acknowledged as very influen- tial in the design and development of professional doctorates in the United Kingdom and Australia in the early 1990s (Fenge, 2009; Lee et al., 2009; Max- well, 2003; Sarros, Willis, & Palmer, 2005).

Critics of traditional PhD research argued that

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Mode 1 knowledge that is produced in the acad- emy has little or no relevance to practicing man- agers (Bareham, Bourner, & Stevens, 2000; Evans, 2001; Thomas, 2007). Proponents of professional doctorates claim Mode 2 knowledge is more appro- priate for practitioners; however, the binary oppo- sition between Mode 1 and Mode 2 knowledge may not be as clearly defined in practice. The problem with this binary, as in any binary, is that one category tends to dominate the other, and the parameters of assessing the “quality” of Mode 2 knowledge are often based on the terms specified by Mode 1. This is what appears to be happening in professional doctorate programs in Australia and the United Kingdom in relation to the exami- nation of the final product, the doctoral thesis. The assertion that PhDs produce original research that contributes to scholarly knowledge, while the DBA makes an original contribution to professional practice, is not clearly and universally apparent during the thesis examination process (McWilliam et al., 2002). When it comes to evaluating research and contribution to knowledge, examiners tend to use traditional criteria: theoretical strength and methodological rigor. This partly reflects the lack of a common understanding of how a professional doctorate thesis or portfolio should differ from a PhD, given the novelty of professional doctorates. Examiners of professional doctorate theses and portfolios still tend to use the same criteria as they do for PhD theses (Fink, 2006; McWilliam et al., 2002; Walker, 2008), despite concerns about the ap- propriateness of these criteria (Johnson, 2005). As well as having different epistemological relation- ships with academic disciplines, knowledge of and in professional practice has a uniquely ap- plied nature, whereas in a PhD the knowledge sought can be purely theoretical. This is not to say that the professional doctorate is somehow less rigorous than a PhD—it is supposed to have a different kind of rigor, but few universities have been able to define different notions of rigor when it came to practice-based research. This remains an unresolved problem with professional doctorates.

In an attempt to overcome the binary of Mode 1 and Mode 2 types of knowledge production Huff (2000) proposed that Mode 1.5 knowledge produc- tion could retain the theoretical characteristics of Mode 1 knowledge while integrating the practice assumptions and outcomes of Mode 2 knowledge. In this approach research questions typically arise from practice, which are then framed using theo- retical insights from Mode 1 knowledge enabling

researchers to clarify constructs and relationships in a broader context. Professional doctorates such as the DBA may provide an opportunity to develop Mode 1.5 methods of inquiry. In the next section we discuss some key assumptions and learning out- comes of professional doctorate programs, their relationship with PhD programs, and their contri- bution to professional practice.

PROFESSIONAL DOCTORATES AND PROFESSIONAL PRACTICE

Professional doctorates are typically found in the fields of education, clinical psychology, medicine, business administration, and engineering (Taylor, 2008). Jamieson and Naidoo (2007) argue that many of these areas where professional doctorates are strongest are at the intersection of traditional dis- ciplines, because knowledge contributions in the context of professions are less likely to be devel- oped within the bounds of just one discipline. Doc- tor of business administration programs in the United Kingdom and Australia were introduced from the early 1990s, largely as a result of recom- mendations made by government education de- partments (Bareham et al., 2000; Sarros, Willis, & Hardie, 2004). The number of professional doctor- ates in general and DBAs in particular grew rap- idly in the 1990s in both countries (Fenge, 2009; Maxwell, 2003; Neumann, 2005). For example, the first DBA program was introduced in Australia in 1993, and by 2000 there were 21 Australian univer- sities (about half the total number of universities in the country) offering DBA programs (Bareham et al., 2000; Sarros et al., 2004). More recently, several DBA programs have closed down, mainly because of very low graduation rates, and at the time of this writing there were 16 Australian universities offer- ing DBA programs. One possible reason for the attractiveness of DBA programs in Australia is the coursework component. Unlike US PhD programs that have a significant coursework component with qualifying and core examinations, Australian and UK PhD programs have not had discipline- based courses, apart from one or two research methods courses. But recent reforms of some PhD programs to include advanced coursework make this a less strong distinguisher (Evans et al., 2005; Lee et al., 2009).

Forty-two universities in the United Kingdom of- fer DBA programs (37% of the total number of uni- versities in the UK). In contrast, less than 10% of AACSB member business schools offered a DBA

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program in the United States (AACSB, 2003). In continental European universities there are virtu- ally no DBA programs (or at least their doctoral programs are not named as such); an exception is the Copenhagen Business School whose website mentioned different routes to a PhD including an “industrial PhD fellow” (with no teaching require- ment) and a DBA. However, their website has no information about the DBA program. Several PhD programs in European universities emphasize a practice-based approach to research. For example, the PhD program at Tilburg University in the Neth- erlands is “specifically targeted to professionals” and “offers opportunities for practice-oriented sci- entific research.” The PhD program at Universitat Saint Gallen in Switzerland offers two tracks: a “research-based professional career” or “academic career track.”

There has been a proliferation of names for pro- fessional doctorates in the United States: Burrell (2006) cites examples such as a doctor of manage- ment, doctor of public health, doctor of public ad- ministration, doctor of health science, doctor of engineering science, doctor of communications de- sign. Australia and the United Kingdom have matched this proliferation with, for example, a doc- tor of nursing (Edwards, 2009), doctor of profes- sional practice (Fenge, 2009), doctor of technology (Maxwell, 2003), doctor of creative arts, and doctor of juridicial studies (Neumann, 2005). Bourner et al. (2001) give more UK examples. In the United States are more as well: the doctor of professional studies at Pace University’s Lubin School of Business and doctoral programs from nonbusiness schools such as the George Washington University Graduate School of Education and Human Development’s ed- ucation doctorate in human and organizational learning. Some professional doctorate programs in business are essentially PhDs (e.g., the programs at Indiana and Boston Universities) aimed at de- veloping management academics; some PhDs, like the Fielding Graduate University’s, are aimed at practicing managers. Standardized doctoral train- ing across professional doctorate programs is cer- tainly not the norm, and there is considerable va- riety in program content. Table 1 provides a representative list of professional doctorates cur- rently offered by Australian, UK, and US universi- ties along with keywords that describe the pro- grams’ aims. A caveat is in order here: It is quite possible that there are other practitioner-based doctoral programs offered in departments other than business schools. Moreover, PhD programs in

several universities can have a focus on practice without necessarily calling their program a profes- sional doctorate or DBA. For instance, many Euro- pean universities offer PhDs that are focused on practice and whose key target populations are se- nior managers and consultants, not potential aca- demics. However, since we focused only on pro- grams that are named professional doctorates, executive doctorates, or DBAs, other practice- based doctoral programs are not listed in Table 1.

If we look at the keywords that describe the aims of DBA programs, terms like “practice,” “profes- sional practice,” “applied research,” “applied knowledge,” appear in all. In terms of target mar- kets, virtually all programs are aimed at practicing managers or management consultants. Of the 72 professional doctorate programs listed in Table 1, only three universities specifically mentioned academia as a career: A DBA would “open the gateway to a life in academia” (University of Southampton, UK); develop “proficient researchers and proficient teachers” (Louisiana Tech Univer- sity, USA); or “enhance their careers as executives, consultants or university professors” (George Fox University, USA). Other commonly used terms were “professional development,” “professional prac- tice,” “research skills,” and “knowledge” (prefaced with terms like “deep,” “applied,” “practice-based” or “actionable”) and “critical thinking.” About 20% of the programs specifically mentioned “reflexiv- ity” or “reflective practitioner” and “leadership” in their aims. Seven programs specifically mentioned that the candidate’s organization would be the fo- cus of the research, with one UK university describ- ing its approach to the DBA as treating the “work- place as a laboratory.”

Entry criteria of most Australian PhD programs require an honors degree (or equivalent), which means that the candidate has had prior exposure to research. Others specify an “appropriate” mas- ter’s degree as well, which in business schools tends to be an MBA, a degree that does not really prepare a candidate for conducting doctoral re- search. Most candidates entering doctoral pro- grams in business have an MBA with very little exposure to research.

In the North American doctoral system, the coursework is designed to equip candidates with both disciplinary knowledge and research skills. For instance, Harvard Business School offers both PhD and DBA programs, and the distinction is based on a candidate’s research interests and “the approach one wishes to apply to that research”

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TABLE 1 Professional Doctorate Programs in Australia, United Kingdom, and the United States

University Region Name of program Keywords about program aims

Charles Darwin University AUS DBA Professional development; specialized knowledge; managerial competencies; theory and practice; professional managers; management consultants; international, regional, national and organizational environments

Charles Sturt University AUS DBA Management knowledge; research skills; practical and problem solving; industry focused; reflective professional practitioners

Curtin University of Technology

AUS DBA Critical thinking; practical managers; practical business situation; sensitive to research questions

Deakin University AUS DBA Advanced understanding; critical thinking; apply theoretical understanding and research results to business problems; advanced research skills; communicate research outcomes; professional practice

Murdoch University AUS DBA Develop solutions; strategic business issues; high level expertise; career advancement; leadership

Queensland University of Technology

AUS DBA Researching professional; research-based business decisions; contribution to business practice; solving contemporary and complex business problems; discipline-based knowledge

Southern Cross University AUS DBA Professional practice; solve problems through research; expert knowledge; new insights in your professional area

University of Ballarat AUS DBA Advances knowledge; application of new knowledge; practical situations; professional managerial competence; theoretical, practical and scholarly expertise

University of Canberra AUS DBA Reflection on practice; relevant research skills, professional experience; research, writing and analysis skills; bridging the gap between theory and practice

University of Newcastle AUS DBA Leadership; analytical and critically self-reflective skills; applied research; extend and deepen their knowledge

University of Notre Dame Australia

AUS DBA Improve relationship between professional and academic knowledge; research-based approach

University of Southern Queensland

AUS DBA Business-oriented doctoral research program; theoretical and empirical understanding; contribute to knowledge generation; identify and resolve business challenges

University of Western Australia

AUS DBA Enhances students’ research skills; develops their independent and critical thinking; contribute state-of-the-art knowledge

University of Western Sydney

AUS DBA Uncover new knowledge; advanced training; applied; professional practice; critical consumers of research

University of Wollongong AUS DBA Business research skills; leadership; expand knowledge; enhanced understanding of contemporary management theories

Victoria University AUS DBA Problems of a particular profession; undertake independent research; original contribution to your profession

Durham University UK DBA Practitioner–researcher; analytical, conceptual, and critical thinking skills; innovators; increased understanding and knowledge; strategic focus; professional practice; applied business research; practitioner-orientated research; analysis and critical appraisal; personal and career development

University of Bath UK DBA Research excellence with professional practice; international; advanced management practice; exercising professional responsibility; leadership roles; test theories; research skills appropriate for senior levels of institutional management; policy improvement; good practice

University of Southampton UK DBA High level strategic business issues; applied; ability to solve business issues; portfolio career; open the gateway to a life in academia

Aston University UK DBA Intellectual, business and research expertise; knowledge leaders; powerful practical knowledge; interface of advanced research and business; develop effective organizations; persona transformation

University of Birmingham UK DBA Academic rigor with practical management relevance; think more deeply and critically about the work that they do; enhance management practice

(table continues)

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TABLE 1 (Continued)

University Region Name of program Keywords about program aims

University of Newcastle UK DBA Advanced research and analytical skills; progressing their careers University of Manchester UK DBA Life-changing experience; improve your understanding . . . yourself and

your way of working; deeper understanding of your chosen subject area University of Liverpool UK DBA Workplace-based research; actionable knowledge; practically oriented;

integration of actionable knowledge; critical thinking skills; working environment; practice-based learning; critical action learning; action research; hands-on learning methods; reflect; contemporary management topics; doctoral practitioner and researcher

University of Surrey UK DBA Enhancement of professional practice; relevant to the world of management; addressing real problems; practitioner doctorate

Heriot Watt University UK DBA Apply research-based thinking; needs of the real business; evaluate issues facing your organization; applied research professionals; analyze complex business issues; develop original and reliable solutions

University of Strathclyde UK DBA Little information on DBA University of Reading UK DBA Executive and professional practice; develop knowledge and theory;

application; reflective practitioner; conceptual and theoretical underpinnings; applicable techniques; develop personal, consultancy, and research competencies; contributes to theory and practice

University of Hertfordshire UK DBA Latest management techniques and research methods; improve the effectiveness of your organization

Keele University UK DBA Personal development; deepen expertise; competencies in research skills; knowledge of methodologies; original contribution to the body of knowledge; understanding of the practice of research

Nottingham Trent University

UK DBA Study of work-based problems; personal and professional development; transfer of learning into organizational and managerial practice; practical perspective; challenging traditional management understanding; new, innovative, and personal responses

Robert Gordon University UK DBA Academic recognition; blend the latest academic thinking with business knowledge, skills and practice; enhancement of professional practice; research-based view of real-world management issues

Birmingham City University

UK DBA Practice-based research; utilize and apply knowledge, action learning, reflective practice, management of change, personal and professional development, lifelong learning

University of Wales Institute

UK DBA Change agency; develop new professional practice; integrates taught, experiential, and research elements; address current professional issues

Bradford University UK DBA Extends your significant managerial experiences; research skills for commercial use; business-critical research techniques; globally significant; commercially valuable results

University of Gloucestershire

UK DBA Project based; contribution to knowledge; develop your organization; understanding and perception of managerial work

Northumbria University UK DBA Developing and improving professional practice; developing research and enquiry skills ; application and reflection

University of Plymouth UK DBA Synthesizse and develop professional practice; theoretical understanding; reflexive capability

University of Huddersfield UK DBA Critical thinking; bridging the gap; academic knowledge and professional practice; contribution to your organization; analytical and research skills

Sheffield Hallam University

UK DBA Personal scholarship; management thinking; advanced professional practice; evidence-based research; theory and practice of management; reflective practitioner

University of West England Bristol

UK DBA Executive level professional practice; application, creation and evaluation of theoretical frameworks and knowledge; real business issues; professional practice; deepen student knowledge; national and global issues; analytical skills; new knowledge and understanding; self- awareness and personal effectiveness

(table continues)

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TABLE 1 (Continued)

University Region Name of program Keywords about program aims

University of Central Lancashire

UK DBA Research-orientated program; business and management research; consultancy-based interventions; personal and professional development

Glasgow Caledonian University

UK DBA Practical business issues; deeper knowledge; academic knowledge of management; professional practice; real organizational change and development; transdisciplinary; based on problem solving

University of Chester UK DBA Original knowledge within organizations; real expertise in areas of interest; research skills

Kingston University London

UK DBA Professional excellence; knowledge of leading-edge business management issues; multidisciplinary perspective; personal and professional development skills; critical self-reflection

Leeds Metropolitan University

UK DBA Professional development; capacity to think creatively and innovatively; design and implement advanced level research projects; research skills; academic and professional contexts

University of Glamorgan UK DBA Reflection on practice; current organizational issues; synergy between learning, research and the practice of business and management; real difference in the workplace

Manchester Metropolitan University

UK DBA Inform and improve professional practice; consultancy skills; research within a corporate context; evidence-based management

University of Wales, Newport

UK DBA Impact on their organization or profession; customized to the needs of their own professions and organizations;

Portsmouth Business School

UK DBA Applied, practice–oriented research; directly relevant to their employing organizations

Middlesex University UK DBA Professional capabilities; reflective practice; enhancing knowledge; capabilities in practice-based research

University of Bedfordshire UK DBA Substantial and original theoretically informed contribution to management practice; professional and academic; direct impact on the participant’s organization

Liverpool John Moores University

UK DBA Extend their own learning; contribution to the body of knowledge of their practice area; researching managerial issues; critical review; systematic application of appropriate theories and research; applying knowledge within the work environment

Anglia Ruskin University UK DBA Professional practice; practitioner-centered research investigation; transferability of research findings to and from the workplace; workplace as laboratory for research; personal development

University of Greenwich UK DBA Leadership, consultancy and innovation; advanced knowledge of research; consultancy interventions, leadership and reflective practice; applied management scholarship

University of Bolton UK DBA Business driven research, analytical, conceptual, and critical thinking skills; greater knowledge and a higher understanding

London South Bank University

UK DBA No specific information about the DBA; information provided on general research degrees

London Metropolitan University

UK DBA Research skills; critical review; systematic application of appropriate theories and research; maximize performance and decision-making abilities; contribution to both theory and practice; professional practice; contribution to professional knowledge

Cranfield University UK DBA Apply concepts to practice; develop your thinking processes; enhance professional credibility; critical appreciation; rigorous management research; reflect and build on learning skills

Harvard University US DBA Power in practice; combining academic rigor and management relevance; field-based research

Case Western Reserve University

US Doctor of Management

Develop thought leaders; advancement of business and society; disciplined approach to scholarship; problems of practice; evidence- based management; self-directed lifelong learning

Boston University US DBA Little information on aims of DBA (table continues)

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(Harvard Business School, 2011). The DBA is de- scribed as “Power in Practice,” a program that combines academic rigor and managerial rele- vance and “provides students with the flexibility to apply a broad range of disciplines and research methods to their chosen area of study.” Research in the DBA is described as “field-based research.” The PhD program, on the other hand, is described as one that provides “disciplinary and manage- ment expertise,” combining the “disciplinary ex- pertise of the social sciences (e.g. economics, psy- chology) with the management expertise of HBS.” The PhD candidate is required to focus on “build- ing a strong foundation in a particular discipline and then apply those methods and approaches to their research on relevant managerial problems” (Harvard Business School, 2010).

Case Western Reserve University offers a profes- sional doctorate called the doctor of management for full-time managers with the aim of creating “practitioner scholars— bold, intellectual bound- ary spanners who straddle the worlds of practice

and academia.” The program claims to develop graduates with the ability to “subject management decisions and organizational phenomena to the insight, methods, and rigor of academia” through combining “strong research intensity and disci- pline with a focus on compelling problems of prac- tice” (Case Western Reserve University, 2011). Benedictine University offers a PhD/DBA program, “Values Driven Leadership,” aimed at organization consultants and senior business executives “to prepare them as socially and environmentally re- sponsible leaders for the 21st century.” Candidates can choose from a “research-focused Ph.D. degree that concludes with a scholarly dissertation based on original research,” or a “practice-oriented D.B.A. degree that concludes with an applied dissertation based on the design and implementation of a ma- jor change initiative” (Benedictine University, 2011).

The emergence of professional doctorates can be attributed to universities’ responses to criticisms about the lack of relevance of PhD research, grad- uate preferences to seek employment outside the

TABLE 1 (Continued)

University Region Name of program Keywords about program aims

Indiana University- Bloomington

US DBA Little Information on DBA

George Fox University US DBA Enhance their careers as executives, consultants, or university professors; integration of faith and ethics into instruction and practice

Cleveland State University US DBA Practitioners; functional expertise; interdisciplinary and global framework; advance business theory and practice

Georgia State University US Executive Doctorate in Management

Applied knowledge and research skills; lifelong learning; effective organizational leadership; interdisciplinary, big-picture issues; disseminate knowledge related to their profession

Golden Gate University US DBA Professional development; expansion of knowledge; critical thinking; conceptual and analytical skills; integrating theory and practice; cultural, ethical, and global issues; effective decision making

Louisiana Tech University US DBA Proficient researchers; proficient teachers; developing individual research and teaching skills

Nova Southeastern University

US DBA Real-time knowledge; advanced decision-making skills; in-depth knowledge of research; superior communication skills; strong leadership development

Regent University US Doctor of Strategic

Leadership

Instant solutions for today’s organizational challenges; increase organizational efficiency and effectiveness; practical aspects of organizational leadership; deep understanding of theory and practice

Wilmington University US DBA Current business and managerial issues; applied knowledge and skills; practitioner’s degree

Benedictine University US PhD/DBA in Values-Driven

Leadership

Organization consultants and senior business executives; socially and environmentally responsible leaders; executive leadership development

Note. The list of professional doctorate programs was compiled from websites listing all universities in Australia (http://www. australian-universities.com/list/); UK (http://www.thecompleteuniversityguide.co.uk/single.htm?ipg�8726); and USA (http://colleges. usnews.rankingsandreviews.com/best-colleges/rankings/national-universities).

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academy, and the demands of the knowledge economy (Fenge, 2009). While the PhD is a degree for an academic career in research and teaching, the professional doctorate is primarily aimed at senior or middle level managers and consultants. A survey of 16 DBA programs in the United King- dom found that the primary career focus was on practitioners aspiring to senior management posi- tions using the expertise and research skills that a doctoral degree can provide—not a PhD, which is intended to train professional researchers but a DBA, which is designed to train “researching pro- fessionals” (Bareham et al., 2000: 397). However, there is some ambiguity about the differing nature of research in the contexts of academia and pro- fessional practice. The assumption is that most practice in business and management is not based on research. The professional doctorate can pro- vide research skills that are appropriate for prac- ticing managers, which in turn is expected to im- prove professional practice. The focus on practice also implies that the professional doctorate is a form of “work-based learning”: Unlike a PhD thesis where research questions are developed by iden- tifying gaps in the theoretical literature, DBA re- search starts from a particular problem that arises in the workplace (Bareham et al., 2000).

However, the learning outcomes required to de- velop research-based practice are not clear. What kind of research skills do senior managers require to improve their practice? How do these research skills differ from those required for an academic researcher? Despite the focus on research-based practice, the research methods courses in most DBA programs are very similar to those offered in PhD programs in terms of developing skills in data collection and analysis. A few programs focus spe- cifically on action research or case study method- ology as these are seen as more “practical” ways of researching, but the tensions between the ap- propriateness of research methods required for ac- ademic versus practitioner research remain unre- solved (Lockhart & Stablein, 2002). Apart from a few specialized functions, such as market research or economic modeling, most middle or senior level managers have little use for sophisticated multi- variate analytic techniques like structural equa- tion modeling or conjoint analysis. A majority of DBA candidates in Australia and the United King- dom study specific problems in their organiza- tions, and the methodological skills required for this type of investigation are limited when com- pared to the skills required to build and test theo-

ries. There is some variation in DBA programs both in the proportion of research content and the form that the research takes. The research component of DBA programs ranges from 30 to 70% and is as- sessed through a thesis that can vary in length from 30,000 to 80,000 words, or a research portfolio comprising 3 or 4 papers of about 10,000 words each, or 3 publishable research papers (Neumann & Goldstein, 2002). The research component of the DBA is a contentious issue and has come under criticism for not being as rigorous as that of the PhD, and there are some doubts about whether it constitutes research of doctoral quality (Seddon, 2001).

Lee et al. (2009: 276) have argued that the debate about the future role of DBAs needs to embrace a “logic of practice,” where the links between knowl- edge and practice are critical and emergent, with practice rationalities and practice-influenced rea- soning leading to the generation of new and dif- ferent knowledge. The professional doctorate is ideally suited to facilitate developments based on such ideas that can challenge the strictures and imperatives of disciplinarity. This way of conceiv- ing professional doctorates means explicit valuing of knowledge beyond the usual bounds of aca- demic knowledge. For example, Beer (2011: 148) identifies two forms of knowledge: “relevant knowledge” and “actionable knowledge” in the context of management practice. The research that produces relevant knowledge must focus on a managerial problem. Relevant knowledge pro- vides managers a general understanding of what they should know and do to solve practical prob- lems. Relevant knowledge can be produced in the academy where researchers can study relation- ships between variables of interest that are rele- vant to the managerial problem under investiga- tion. The extent to which managers actually use this knowledge depends on how this knowledge is disseminated, whether the findings are expressed in a manner accessible to practitioners, and the managerial capacity and skills required to imple- ment the research. Actionable knowledge, on the other hand, provides insights on how managers should address organizational problems (Beer, 2011). The knowledge is produced in the context of a specific organization where researchers work in collaboration with managers to solve a particular problem and develop specific interventions to achieve specified outcomes. According to Beer (2011), actionable knowledge can only be obtained by action research. Thus “relevant knowledge

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is not necessarily actionable, but actionable knowledge is always relevant” (Beer, 2011: 149).

In the academy the value of the knowledge pro- duced, regardless of its type, is generally assessed by the status and ranking of journals where re- search is published. Actionable knowledge can be made theoretically significant if researchers can study the specific problem in a variety of organi- zations and contexts in an attempt to produce a general explanation. It will be difficult, if not im- possible, for a researcher to publish in a leading academic management journal findings from one action research project that focuses on a particular intervention in an organization. There could also be issues about the proprietary nature of the knowledge for the organization. Dissemination and publication of the results of an action research project is of little interest to managers, but for a researcher working in a business school, publica- tions in leading journals are crucial for career de- velopment. Thus, knowledge produced in the acad- emy tends to be more valued than knowledge produced in the workplace because the path to promotion in the academy is by publishing in lead- ing journals.

If professional doctorates are to grow in impor- tance, knowledge in professional practice con- texts, that is, “knowledge distinguished by prac- tice rationalities” (Lee et al., 2009: 276) and situated in the complex realities of practice rather than abstracted out of it, should be accorded a status equivalent to theory and academic knowledge (while acknowledging it is not the same as aca- demic knowledge). Professional doctorate candi- dates bring to their research a great deal of knowl- edge, often tacit or implicit knowledge, of the necessities and realities important in business and management, of how business procedures ac- tually work, and a deep, explicit understanding of the imperatives of business practice, more than is usually found in textbooks or academic journals. This knowledge can be built on to structure and guide the research program and locate practitioner problems in the context of existing literature and theory. We propose that such professional doctor- ates can accommodate the demands of practitio- ners and end users of doctoral research for more industry-relevant research.

We argue that this conception of professional doctorates means that a professional doctorate is more than a matter of inviting professional practi- tioners into the university; it requires the univer- sity to be open to accepting the forms of knowledge

these practitioners as doctoral candidates bring to research. However, such an extension is not with- out controversy, and there are debates about as- sessing knowledge production from a professional practice perspective. For example, some profes- sional doctorates have thesis supervision involv- ing relevant practitioners as supervisors chosen for their professional knowledge instead of their doctoral qualifications (Johnson, 2005; Maxwell, 2003). Employing nonacademic examiners is an- other controversial idea and is generally resisted in academia (Johnson, 2005). However, one could argue that academic examiners and thesis super- visors may lack vital understanding of the profes- sional practice context of the research. The de- bates appear to reflect differences in perceptions of rigor versus relevance of doctoral training. Crit- ics of traditional PhD programs call for more rele- vant and practice-based research, calls that are resisted by others who claim that a practitioner- focused approach could dilute the quality of re- search that is expected at the doctoral level (Sed- don, 2001).

The development of professional doctorates and their success is more than just a matter of univer- sities meeting some market demand. It provides universities with a challenge and opportunity to look at new ways of working, thinking, and achiev- ing their broad objectives. Taking up these oppor- tunities will change some aspects of the university itself. Universities will have to adapt the underly- ing assumptions behind doctoral programs “to ac- knowledge and take advantage of the different contributions and outcomes of all doctoral pro- grams” (McWilliam et al., 2002: 104). In this way doctoral standards can be maintained, universi- ties can make a wider contribution to society, and a distinction between the PhD and professional doctorates can be justified.

The discussion above has described some of the main themes of DBA programs and their relation to the PhD. Dichotomies abound in program descrip- tions of the DBA and PhD: breadth versus depth; theory versus practice; basic versus applied re- search; disciplinary knowledge versus practice knowledge, researching professionals versus pro- fessional researchers, work-based learning versus academy-based learning are some examples of how the DBA is positioned vis-à-vis the PhD. While these are descriptions offered by DBA program di- rectors and managers, not much is known about the experience of DBA candidates and graduates who have undertaken these programs. What learn-

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ing outcomes were produced? What skills did graduates acquire? What did they gain from the program? To explore these questions we discuss the DBA program at an Australian university, which can be considered as “typical” in the sense that it focuses on professional practice, reflection, and professional development— key attributes of most DBA programs.

A DBA: CREATING THE REFLECTIVE PRACTITIONER

The DBA program that the authors were involved with was developed in 1996 in an attempt to ad- dress educational needs of Australian senior man- agers. Developed as a professional degree of doc- toral standing, it was aimed at developing the capabilities of a reflective practitioner or a practitioner-scholar, with strong emphasis on es- tablishing a knowledge base, providing the com- petencies for reflection on professional practice, and conducting research in a professional practice context. Tenkasi (2011: 212) defines practitioner- scholars as “actors who have received traditional academic training and who apply their knowledge of theory and research to an organization’s partic- ular challenges to resolve business problems.” The DBA was developed as an alternate pathway to doctoral research for practicing managers who were interested in expanding their knowledge base but were usually not qualified to enter a PhD program because of lack of prior research experi- ence. Fundamental to the program was an under- standing that the basis of research in professional doctorates is the professional experience of candi- dates: The research to be conducted for a thesis is necessarily based on and informed by professional practice.

This university offered both DBA and PhD pro- grams; however, the two programs operated inde- pendently, with different directors leading their respective program. The target market for the DBA program was also different: All candidates held full-time senior positions in organizations and were generally older than their PhD counterparts. Program structure also differed considerably: There was no mandatory coursework for PhD stu- dents, while DBA candidates had to undertake a 2-year coursework program. All Australian univer- sities that offered DBA programs also had PhD programs in place, and the DBA was seen not as a substitute to the PhD but as an alternate pathway to doctoral research.

The DBA was aimed at working professionals with at least 10 years of relevant work experience. It was also a requirement that a proportion of work experience should be post-MBA graduation. In or- der to provide a contextual setting for their re- search, candidates were required to have the abil- ity and opportunity to carry out their research in one or more organizations. Access to and support from relevant organizations were essential criteria for selection of candidates. An analysis of candi- date profiles since 1996 indicated considerable di- versity in the range of positions and industries. Forty-six percent of students were senior manag- ers in industry, employed in functions such as strategy, finance, quality control, project manage- ment, human resources, or marketing. Twenty per- cent were managing directors, CEOs or partners; 15% were directors or executive directors. Another 15% were self-employed consultants. The DBA graduates (with very few exceptions) continued their careers in industry; whereas many PhD grad- uates pursue an academic career. An analysis of candidates’ reasons for pursuing a DBA found their stated reasons included enhancing chances of promotion, prestige of a doctoral qualification, in- tellectual growth, professional and personal de- velopment, contribution to professional practice, expanding knowledge base, obtaining post-MBA qualification or the next level of academic ability, and preparing for a career in consulting.

The DBA was focused around three major themes: knowledge, professional development, and research. The coursework component was de- veloped to address all three areas with courses in strategy and organization theory aimed at build- ing an intensive knowledge base, professional de- velopment workshops designed to promote critical thinking and build reflective practice, and re- search methods courses to prepare candidates for their supervised thesis work. The emphasis on re- flective practice is consistent with received wis- dom in management, particularly in the context of organizational learning (Argyris & Schon, 1987; Schon, 1987; Senge, 1990), where the role of the reflective practitioner was found to be a crucial factor influencing how an organization learns. In practice, however, reflection as a conscious exer- cise is not easy given the daily pressures of man- agerial work. The DBA was built on the idea that reflective practice and learning about what it means to be a manager, negotiating this manage- rial identity in the workplace, and understanding the dynamics of interpersonal interactions in the

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workplace as a result of this identity are crucial for effective professional practice (Morley & Priest, 2001). As can be seen from Table 1 there are several professional doctorate programs with a similar fo- cus on critical reflection.

Apart from reflection, DBA candidates were also supposed to develop more “scholarly” attributes, as in PhD programs. These attributes included es- tablishing an intensive knowledge base, develop- ing analytic thinking skills, learning to critically evaluate and apply academic research, formulat- ing researchable propositions, learning how to critically review relevant literature, and develop- ing data analysis skills and techniques. The coursework introduced candidates to the world of academic writing and helped prepare them for their thesis work. Figure 1 describes the range of practice capabilities for DBA graduates at this par- ticular Australian university. The capabilities listed in the boxes around the edge of Figure 1 are assessed (summatively or formatively) in the coursework components of the program. Capabili- ties listed in the central box in Figure 1 are seen as essential to a successful thesis.

The DBA is not an extended master’s or an ad- vanced MBA. The MBA typically provides manage- rial training in a basic sense and is a program designed to introduce candidates to a knowledge base and a range of analytic tools that a manager needs. There is little, if any, room for critical think- ing or reflective practice, and most MBA programs focus entirely on problem-solving techniques with no inputs on the epistemological and ontological assumptions that underlie knowledge production, which are key theoretical insights that the DBA provides. If the MBA teaches managers what to think, the DBA is designed to teach them how to think. The DBA focuses on the experience of man- agers after their MBA experience and uses this as the basis for professional practice reflection and research, which is why the entry requirement spec- ifies a proportion of time worked after MBA graduation.

In this program group interactions were a crucial part of the learning process. This generated sus- tainable cohorts whose progress through the pro- gram could be tracked and evaluated and appro- priate feedback given. This is an area where coursework-plus-thesis doctorates like the DBA have an advantage over traditional thesis-only PhDs, which are the norm in Australia and the United Kingdom, and which can be a lonely expe- rience for candidates.

For most DBA candidates the program was their first experience with actual research. As in other doctorates, the research process, developing the thesis, and new knowledge discovery, require ad- vanced thought. The coursework challenged stu- dents to critique academic papers, defend posi- tions, consider difficult and unstructured issues, reflect, prepare, and respond to criticisms in an attempt to foster the analytic, rhetorical, and criti- cal thinking abilities needed.

A significant learning outcome was an appreci- ation of the difficulty in making “valid” prescrip- tions about how to deal with a particular manage- rial problem, let alone offering generalizable and universal prescriptions. Thus, the program ap- peared to offer a managerial sense-making frame- work that was more reflective than “expedient sense-making” that is characteristic of most man- agerial cognitive processes (Schwandt, 2005). Crit- ical examination of existing sense-making frame- works enabled transformational learning, whereby candidates were able to recognize both the limita- tions of quick fix approaches to management prob- lems as well as the managerial sense-making frameworks that framed these problems in a par- ticular way.

Most of the candidates, after 10 years in the workplace, were accustomed to a particular work- ing and writing style. Now they had to learn to make a more sophisticated argument than simply listing a number of “bullet points.” Of particular significance was the choice of research methods: Of the 21 completed theses (to date), only one used quantitative methods in the form of multivariate data analysis. A handful relied on surveys of a limited population (such as managers) for much of their data. In-depth interviews, focus groups, Del- phi analysis, and case studies were the techniques used in the other theses. This probably reflects the practitioner focus of DBA thesis topics, where the aim is to generate understanding about a particu- lar kind of professional practice that generally does not involve the use of a large representative sample or sophisticated quantitative data analytic techniques. The scope of the research problem of most candidates’ thesis topics was restricted to either their own company or their industry, and as a result, the research questions that emerged from the problem statement did not warrant the types of methods one would expect from an empirical study that develops and tests hypotheses using large samples. In a study of an executive doctoral pro- gram in the United States, Hay (2004) found similar

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patterns with our experience, whereby dissertation topics typically emerged from the workplace and were then subsequently located in an appropriate theoretical framework.

IMPLICATIONS AND DIRECTIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH

So what insights can be gained from the DBA ex- perience? First, we must emphasize that the DBA

market is not large in terms of numbers but is small and fairly specialized. Students are gener- ally required to pay fees that cover direct costs so the program breaks even and may make a small profit (Neumann, 2005). However, unlike the MBA, the DBA is not and will probably never be a cash cow for universities, but is a degree that can en- hance their research profile and interactions with industry and practitioners. MBA alumni can also become a potential market for DBA programs after

Applied Research Practice

Ability to locate, select, analyze, and synthesize

data and information at an advanced conceptual

level.

Ability to establish new ideas, build conceptual

models, clarify understandings, and determine new

arenas of thought of an intrinsically practical

nature.

Ability to demonstrate critical, imaginative,

integrative, and analytic thinking.

Professional Practice

Ability to address complex professional,

management problems and to present advanced

work-based solutions.

Ability to develop effective leadership in

professional management fields.

Ability to develop a critical perspective in

analyzing professional practice.

Communicative Capability

Ability to take a leading

role in “learning

conversations” with

academic and

professional colleagues,

to be able to listen and

accurately distill the

essence of alternative

meanings.

Ability to present

complex arguments, to

identify and articulate

opposing positions, and to

rationally and effectively

present appropriate

responses.

Environmental, Social and Ethical Practice

Ability to make ethically

sound judgments within

social, professional, and

legal frameworks.

Ability to personally

manage reflective practice

in an ethical manner.

Ability to frame decisions

and make judgments in

ways, which recognize and

respond to concerns for

social and environmental

sustainability.

Problem Diagnosis & Solving, Knowledge Creation

Ability to apply knowledge and

diagnose complex and paradoxical

situations.

Ability to address and solve problems

creatively, using well-developed skills,

competencies, capabilities, and

knowledge.

Ability to formulate and communicate

complex solutions in simple practical

ways.

Ability to address strategic and

operational implications of proposed solutions.

Collegial Practice

Ability to work effectively and cooperatively

as a member of a community of scholars, to

contribute to the growth of knowledge of

others and to develop group-learning skills.

Ability to foster a learning environment that

motivates research progress, stimulates

thinking, and helps create new ideas and

Reflective Practice

Ability to reflect on experiences, to employ

conceptual frameworks, to relate these to

practice and research processes, and to inform

and develop enhanced “deep” management

knowledge.

FIGURE 1 Practice Capabilities for Professional DBA at an Australian University

Adapted from Kimber, 2001, Unpublished manuscript.

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graduates gain relevant industry experience. Pro- fessional doctorates may reverse the declining trend in PhD numbers faced by many US universi- ties by establishing links between alumni and in- dustry while generating doctorally qualified fac- ulty that can contribute to both industry and academia (Bisoux, 2002). The fee paying DBA may also offer an alternate to the high cost PhD pro- grams that many universities are struggling to maintain.

Second, the distinctions between a PhD and DBA that the literature describes were not readily ap- parent. While it is true that the “practical” ap- proach advocated by the DBA program was an attraction for practicing managers, distinctions be- tween theory and practice were less clear-cut, and there were areas of overlap (Neumann, 2005). In terms of the DBA experience for candidates, discipline-driven versus practice-driven research was less of a dichotomy: The DBA offered candi- dates a discipline-based approach to reflect on their professional practice, and candidates seemed comfortable with this approach.

The DBA is more prevalent in Australia and the United Kingdom than in the United States. North American doctoral programs like the PhD already contain a substantial coursework component, un- like their UK and Australian counterparts. Thus, while the presence of coursework is an important factor that distinguishes the DBA from the PhD in Australia and the United Kingdom, it is the content and structure of the coursework that could differ- entiate the DBA from the PhD in North American markets. For the research undertaken by many DBA candidates, quantitative skills (beyond their MBA level) are often not very important. Also, much of what PhD candidates learn in their discipline- based courses focuses primarily on the theories that inform the discipline, arguably with less em- phasis on the application of those theories. PhD theses are assessed by their contribution to theory. Most DBA thesis topics focus on micro- organizational processes whereby candidates in- vestigate particular problems in their own organi- zations. Coursework in the DBA tends to focus on the application of theory to practice and the DBA theses reflect this approach. One of the outcomes of the early growth in DBA programs in Australia and the United Kingdom was the recognition of the importance of formal doctoral training in the form of coursework. Over the last few years several PhD programs in Australia and the United Kingdom

have introduced mandatory coursework, which is a reflection on the value of a DBA.

Some directions for future research that can shed some light on currently unresolved issues emerge from the above discussion. There is a lack of understanding of the context, content, and out- comes of research arising from professional doc- torates. We discuss below six directions for future research.

Industry and Practice Focus

The first area for future research is the much- touted focus on practice- and industry-based re- search of professional doctorates. In order to main- tain and reinforce its unique doctoral status, the DBA should be substantively different from other postgraduate programs in management: It should not be an “extended MBA” starting from where the MBA left off, but should focus on the experience of managers, especially their middle and senior management experience. For this rea- son, the DBA does not consider fresh MBA candi- dates. If practice is indeed the râison d’être of professional practice, then there is a need to un- derstand in what ways research produced by professional doctorates actually contribute to en- hancing practice. While it is true that all DBA can- didates in the program we described used their companies or industries as research sites, there were no institutional links as such between the university and industry or professional bodies that informed or shaped the program in any significant way. Other studies of professional doctorates in Australia also found little evidence of dialogue between universities and industry (McWilliam et al., 2002; Neumann, 2005). What links there were tended to be initiated, facilitated, and maintained by individual student interest rather than institu- tional forces. Gill and Hoppe (2009) argue that ac- ademics’ preferred channels for disseminating their research findings—refereed academic jour- nals and conferences—are ineffectual in commu- nicating research results to business. They advo- cate that professional doctorates not only can have a role in helping to build informing relationships between academia and practice, but that this should be their main rationale. For business schools this would mean moving from a near total focus on pure research and knowledge creation (informing internal clients) to research that has an impact on business practice (informing external clients), as prioritized by the AACSB (2008). Gill

2013 187Banerjee and Morley

and Hoppe (2009) see this as being effective be- cause the graduates themselves will provide the necessary linkages between professions, business, and academia.

In a study of academic–practitioner engage- ment, Hughes, Bence, Grisoni, O’Regan, and Worn- ham (2011) found attitudinal differences in both actors: There were some academics that were “willing and able” to engage with practitioners, others that were “willing but underexposed,” and the rest were classified as “theoreticians” with no desire to engage with practitioners. Similarly, there were practitioners that were “enthusiasts” when it came to engaging with academics and research, some who were “uncommitted,” and oth- ers that were “cynical.” Professional doctorates have the potential to form bridges between aca- demics that are “willing and able” or “willing but underexposed” with practitioners that are “enthu- siasts” and “uncommitted” (Hughes et al., 2011). We suggest that the next step would be to use the findings from Hughes et al. (2011) to identify ways to bridge the industry–academy divide in an at- tempt to “understand the generative mechanisms that promote effective interaction between the worlds of the management researcher and of the manager (and the managed)” (Hodgkinson & Star- key, 2011: 366). Future research can investigate how these bridges can be built, how attitudinal differences can be overcome, identify barriers that arise, and describe ways to overcome these barri- ers. These elements constitute the “knowledge translation value chain” that attempts to integrate theory development, reporting of basic research, practitioner-oriented research outputs, and en- gagement with end users of research (Thorpe, Eden, Bessant, & Ellwood, 2011).

Viability of Partnerships

If universities are to produce research that is rele- vant and beneficial to the wider society, then there is a need to assess the viability of partnerships between practitioner-scholars and academics. Such partnerships have the potential to enhance the research capability of practitioner-scholars from “appliers of theory” to co-producers of knowl- edge while enhancing the practice capabilities of academics (Tenkasi, 2011). More research is needed to understand the process of partnership building, the differing interests that may arise, the driving forces of successful engagement between industry and academia, and the outcomes of en-

gaged research. Given the current low levels of interaction between practitioner-scholars and ac- ademics, it is doubtful whether individual motiva- tions to conduct practice-based research will lead to any shift in the research agenda of business schools. There is a need to understand the role that “bridging institutions” can play in fostering en- gaged research (Bartunek & Schein, 2011: 244). Re- search centers, institutes, and professional associ- ations where scholars and practitioners can interact and collaborate are examples of bridging institutions that can enhance the relevance of ac- ademic research. While most universities have re- search centers and institutes, the extent of participa- tion and involvement of industry, government, and community partners in these centers is not clear.

Career Enhancement Outcomes

Traditionally, doctoral graduates in business and management tend to embark on academic careers in research and teaching. The career-enhancing value of doctoral study for practicing managers needs more investigation. While industry sources acknowledge the value of developing research ca- pabilities in managers, very little debate occurs between industry and academia as to the purpose and role of doctoral education and its ability to meet industry needs (Kemp, 2004). Hay’s (2004) study of an executive doctoral program in the United States found a similar divide: While some doctorally qualified researchers pursuing an aca- demic career engaged in consultancy projects in the realm of practice, their published research in academic journals rarely discussed implications for practice. Executive doctorates, on the other hand, tended to produce actionable knowledge us- ing enacted theories. However, not much is known about how this actionable knowledge is dissemi- nated or whether it remains in-house at the re- search site. Future research can investigate the process of diffusion of practitioner-based knowl- edge produced by professional doctorates and the implications for career development.

The Nature of Practice-Based Research

Expectations of what constitutes “research” in pro- fessional practice needs to be better understood. Despite the espoused focus on practice, DBA the- ses still tended to be assessed by their theoretical and empirical attributes, mainly because no clear guidelines exist on alternate ways to assess re-

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search. While there are DBA programs that are marketed as coursework doctorates with a smaller research component than PhDs, current studies show that a majority of DBAs are indeed research degrees. Some candidates and supervisors believe that DBA research could be readily transferred into a PhD (Neumann, 2005), although this view is not universal in the academy. A radically different conception of a practice-based research thesis does not exist at the present time. Most universi- ties use the same examination criteria to assess PhD and DBA dissertations (even if there are stated differences), which compounds the confusion: If the output of both programs are considered to be equivalent and examined the same way, then the differentiation between products becomes less clear (Perry & Cavaye, 2004).

There is a need to educate academics, supervi- sors, and examiners on the nature of professional doctorates and how DBA candidates need to be supervised and taught research skills to make a contribution to professional practice. The DBA is a program that can address concerns about the rel- evance of doctoral management education. The conventional process of developing a PhD thesis is to read the literature on a particular topic, identify the theoretical gaps, and attempt to fill those gaps by collecting empirical data. The thesis generally concludes with a discussion of managerial impli- cations and directions for future research. A DBA thesis would start from a managerial problem, lo- cate it in the theoretical literature, and investigate what theoretical insights can address the problem. It would consider, evaluate, and apply these in the practice context. Tenkasi (2011) sees this as one of the dominant ways of linking theory and practice in research. Such an approach may enable a pro- cess of building theory from practice and creating actionable knowledge that goes beyond finding a balance between rigor and relevance but maxi- mizes both simultaneously (Schultz & Hatch, 2005). Research on pedagogies of practiced-based learn- ing have focused on curriculum development and learning processes in professions like medicine and nursing (Bhoyrub, Hurley, Neilson, Ramsay, & Smith, 2010; Norman & Schmidt, 2000); however, not much is known about a practice-based approach to research. Professional doctorates could broaden the role of research-based knowledge in business education, creating a form of hybrid curriculum that goes beyond conventional practitioner- oriented approaches to management education such as the case study-based MBA (as Reed &

March, 2000, point out, simply writing endless case studies does not constitute research).

Quality Control

The route to achieving doctoral status, defined as making an original and significant contribution to knowledge, is different in a professional doctorate. However, given the diversity of professional doc- torates, it is not clear whether there is consistency in the teaching and application of rigorous re- search methods and the wider relevance of re- search to society (Taylor, 2008). In Australia some anecdotal evidence suggests that some faculty members consider professional doctorates to be of lesser status and quality (Neumann & Goldstein, 2002; Taylor, 2008). While more research is needed to substantiate this claim (possibly arising from the rigor vs. relevance debate that we discussed earlier), such perceptions can be problematic for the doctoral standing of the DBA. There is consid- erable diversity in the structure and content of DBA programs currently on offer in Australia, Asia, and the United Kingdom. If the DBA is supposed to be “differentially rigorous,” there is a need to develop new criteria to assess the parameters that consti- tute the difference. Further, while universities have focused on developing, accrediting, and mar- keting DBA programs, ensuring progression and timely completion is central to the sustainability of professional doctorates, and hence, it is impor- tant to understand the impact of supervision, course- work, and other resources on successful completion.

Program Content and Delivery

The quantitative research methods courses, in PhD programs for example, focus on methods and tech- niques required to analyze large samples and test generalizable propositions. Given the managerial focus and case study orientation of DBA thesis topics, the kind of research methods required for managers to enhance their professional practice needs to be investigated. Perspectives from evidence-based practice (Rousseau, 2006) can be particularly useful in designing professional doc- torates, and more research is needed to investigate how insights from evidence-based approaches can be used to inform both program content and deliv- ery of professional doctorates. Practitioners and consultants as end users of research are key mem- bers of the evidence-based management commu- nity, along with researchers and educators (Rous-

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seau & McCarthy, 2007). Professional doctorates offer an opportunity to develop a co-production approach to knowledge involving practitioners, educators, and researchers. As a paradigm for de- cision making based on the best available re- search, evidence-based practice can provide a more integrative approach that goes beyond iden- tifying practical implications for inductive theo- ries, by enabling practitioners to participate in the research process. Such an approach may overcome the dichotomy between Mode 1 and Mode 2 types of knowledge and enable a more relevant assess- ment of Mode 2 knowledge using insights from practice-based research.

For example, there is a need to understand how research in professional doctorates can produce “sticky findings”—research findings that “grab at- tention, gain credibility and are readily shared” (Rousseau & Boudreau, 2011: 269). Rousseau and Boudreau (2011) describe what academics should do to make their research more relevant—for ex- ample, present findings in a more practice-related manner, write accessibly, and frame research ac- cording to end users’ interests. It will be useful to learn how these practices can be integrated into the program content of doctoral programs, perhaps as an action-research project in a doctoral program where interventions can be designed and evalu- ated over a period of time to assess the impact of research findings on practice. If, as Burke and Rau (2010) argue, a stronger nexus between research and teaching can enhance the practical implica- tions of research, then a practice-based research agenda can in turn make research more relevant to teaching. An integrative mix of science, practice, and teaching can provide a more useful research agenda for the future. Professional doctorate pro- grams can make a significant contribution to this agenda by providing practitioners with research capabilities they need to enhance their profes- sional practice while enabling academics to relate their research findings to both teaching and practice.

Some academics are hostile to industry-driven, quick fix, problem-solving doctoral degrees be- cause they can tarnish the image of research de- grees. The practice focus of professional doctor- ates may lead to the generation of mainly functional knowledge because of an assumption that knowledge arises primarily from experience. Serving the profession of management is not the sole purpose of business schools, and academic freedom can be compromised if research con-

ducted by business schools is dictated by corpo- rate interests (Hughes et al., 2011; Starkey & Tem- pest, 2008). For example, a 2009 AACSB report on the impact of management research cited the work of Fisher Black and Myron Scholes on options pric- ing as an example of research produced in the academy that had a major impact on financial practices, particularly in the area of derivatives. However, several scholars have blamed such a narrow focus on the pricing of derivatives for caus- ing the subprime crisis in the United States that led to the global financial crisis in 2007 (Hodgkin- son & Starkey, 2011; Stewart, 2012).

The technical-functionalist approach and the “enthusiasm for immediate relevance” can ignore the “big questions” about management—an ap- proach which remains restricted to identifying fac- tors that affect organizational performance (where performance is defined using narrow criteria) while ignoring the “basic ideas that shape the discourse of management, such as conflict of inter- est, problems with information and incentives, bounded rationality, diffusion of legitimate forms, loose coupling, liability of newness, dynamic traps of adaptation, absorptive capacity and the like” (Reed & March, 2000: 55). Given recent corporate scandals, to the role of corporations in triggering the global financial crisis and growing concerns about environmental issues and climate change we can add sustainability, ethics, and corporate social responsibility as other “big questions” that a technical-functional approach cannot address (Banerjee, 2011).

Bartunek and Rynes (2010) offer a series of strat- egies whereby scholars can enhance the practical implications of their research. These include relat- ing findings of individual studies to more general principles, providing more information about con- text, and linking results to practice. Even if practi- tioners are unwilling or unable to implement re- search findings, some level of engagement with academic research that is accessible to practitio- ners may lead to more reflective practice. Research conducted in professional doctorates starts from the assumption of reflective practice, and its con- tribution is assessed based on how practice can be enhanced. Such an approach may also help ad- dress the teaching–research gap that currently ex- ists in management. Perhaps the DBA can make “managers become philosophers” through creat- ing a process of reflective practice that integrates learning with sense-making (Schwandt, 2005). There is potential for imaginative curriculum de-

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velopment in the DBA, given that DBA graduates do not generally follow an academic career of teaching and publishing with the constraints of what Ghoshal (2005: 77) calls the “pretense of knowledge.” Bringing a practice perspective into doctoral education combined with a critical and reflective approach to learning may allow manag- ers to question dominant management theories, perhaps even provide a framework to understand how “bad management theories are destroying good management practices” (Ghoshal, 2005: 75). Professional doctorates have the potential to bridge this industry–academia divide.

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Bobby Banerjee is professor of management at Cass Business School, City University London. He received his PhD from the University of Massachusetts. Banerjee’s primary research interests are in the areas of sustainability, climate change, corporate social responsibility, and critical management studies.

Clive Morley is a professor in the Graduate School of Business and Law at RMIT University. His PhD from the University of Melbourne was on tourism demand. Morley’s research gener- ally involves the use of statistical data analysis to address business issues. He was the founding director of the RMIT DBA.

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