Application: Employee Resistance to Change
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ResistancetoChangeinOrganizations..pdf
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Resistance to Change in Organizations
Jeanny Paren
University of Economics, Prague
Abstract
Resistance to change is a widely spread phenomenon. This paper discusses resistance
to change in organizations and looks at what leaders can do to reduce resistance to change.
It introduces the subject in the context of change management and relevant models and
discusses selected concepts. The paper looks at common errors to organizational change
efforts and their consequences, defence mechanism system and explores reasons why people
resist change. It further focuses on approaches for reducing resistance to change. The findings
stress the importance of communication and education in order to reduce resistance to change
in organizations.
Keywords: Change Management, Resistance to Change
Main Conference Topic: Management & Organizational Behaviour
Introduction
The purpose of this paper is to critically discuss resistance to change in organizations
and what leaders can do to reduce resistance to change. First part will critically discuss
resistance to change in organizations and second part will examine how leaders can reduce
resistance to change.
Change is most frequently described as a necessary response to one or more
of a potentially endless list of drivers. These are technological developments, mergers and
acquisitions, increasing competitiveness in the organization´s target markets, achieving or
maintaining growth, economic conditions, legislative or regulatory changes, globalisation,
customer pressure or strategic realignment (Firoozmand, 2014). According to Barnett and
Carroll (1995, pp. 217), organizational change can be usefully conceptualized in terms of
process, that refers to how change occurs, and its content, describing what actually changes
in the organization. Changes can be large or small, evolutionary or revolutionary, sought after
or resisted (Hayes, 2010). Hayes (2010) described the generic process model of change that
incorporates many of the features of other process models (e.g. Lewin´s three stage model and
its modification by Lippet et al, 1958, Egan 1996 and Beckhard and Harris, 1987, all cited
in Hayes, 2010). It provides a conceptual framework for thinking about the management of
change. The model is illustrated in Exhibit 1. It can be observed that people issues need to be
attended to throughout the whole change process for both, incremental as well as
transformational change (Hayes, 2010). With respect to the topic of this paper, resistance to
change, that is highly connected with people; further text will focus mainly on the “Managing
the people issues” step that stretches over the whole process of change.
Exhibit 1: Generic process model of change
Recognize need and start change
process
Diagnosis (review present state, identify future state)
Plan and prepare to change
Implement the change
Sustain the change
Managing people issues
Review External change
Problems and opportunities
Source: Adopted from Hayes (2010, pp. 14)
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Resistance to Change in Organizations
What is resistance to change? Resistance is a natural part of the change and is to be
expected (Coghlan, 1993; Bovey & Hede, 2001). Resistance to change is by itself neither
good nor bad (Lawrence, 1954, 1969). It is a socially constructed phenomenon that is
generated and defined through interaction of all parties in the change (Van Dijk & Van Dick,
2009). A common point is that resistance to change is seen as an important reason for change
process failures (Armenakis et al., 1993). Lawrence (1954, 1969) stated that resistance is
always an important signal calling for further inquiry by management. Wiersema and Bantel
(1992) argued that there is a correlation between age and resistance; as people age, flexibility
decreases and resistance to change increases.
Pardo del Val and Fuentes (2003) and Bouckenooghe (2010) reviewed the literature
on attitudes towards change and extracted various definitions of resistance. The Macmillan
English Dictionary (2002, pp. 1205) offers several definitions of resistance, one of which is:
“The refusal to accept something new such as plan, idea or change.” Published literature
on resistance to organizational change has focused more on organizational issues rather than
on individual psychological factors (Bovey & Hede, 2001). Resistance to change is
an important topic in change management and should be seriously considered to help
the organization to achieve the advantages of the transformation (Pardo del Val and
Fuentes, 2003). Brower and Abolafia (1995) stated that the study of resistance
in organizations has been dominated by two perspectives, managerial and bureaucratic. From
a managerial perspective, resistance is dysfunction that managers learn to “cope with” and
most radical perspectives see resistance as a weapon in the class struggle. Bureaucratic
resistance, on the contrary, is a common and varied mode of organizational behaviour and
often enacted to support the goals of organization (Brower and Abolafia, 1995). Lewin (1947)
argued that through a force field comprising a balance of forces pushing for and resisting
change, any level of behaviour is maintained in a condition of quasi stationary equilibrium.
Such level of level of behaviour can be transformed by either adding forces for change in the
desired direction or by reducing the resisting forces. Lewin pointed out that approaches
focusing on the removal of restraining forces within the individual, group or organization are
likely to result in a more permanent change compared to approaches involving the application
of outside pressure for change.
Kotter (1996) identified eight errors common to organizational change efforts and
stated that making any of them can have serious consequences (see Exhibit 2). Kotter pointed
out that with awareness and skills, these errors can be avoided or greatly mitigated. The key is
to understand why organizations resist needed change, what is the multistage process that can
overcome inertia and how leadership should be used (Kotter, 1996).
Exhibit 2: Eight errors common to organizational change efforts and their consequences
COMMON ERRORS
• Allowing too much complacency
• Failing to create a sufficiently powerful guiding coalition
• Underestimating the power of vision
• Undercommunicating the vision by a factor of 10
• Permitting obstacles to block the new vision
• Failing to create short-term wins
• Declaring victory too soon
• Neglecting to anchor changes firmly in the corporate culture
CONSEQUENCES
• New strategies aren´t implemented well
• Acquisitions don´t achieve expected synergies
• Reengineering takes too long and costs too much
• Downsizing doesn´t get costs under control
• Quality programs don´t deliver hoped-for results
Source: Adopted from Kotter (1996; Chapter 1)
Kotter and Schlesinger (1979) identified four main reasons why people resist change.
1. Parochial self-interest: People think that they will lose something of value as a result.
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2. Misunderstanding and lack of trust: People do not understand the implications of change and perceive that it might cost them more than they will gain.
3. Different assessments: People assess the situation differently from their managers or change initiators and see more costs than benefits resulting from the change, not only
on an individual, but also on a company level.
4. Low tolerance for change: People fear that they will not be able to develop the new skills and behaviour that will be required of them.
Assessing which of the possibilities might apply to those affected by change is
important as it can help manager select an appropriate way to overcome resistance (Kotter and
Schlesinger, 1979). Bovey and Hede (2001) conducted a study where they investigated
the role of defence mechanism, both adaptive and maladaptive, in individual resistance.
The results indicated a positive correlation with behavioural intention to resist change for five
maladaptive defence mechanisms, and a negative correlation for adaptive ones. Each of these
defences is described in Exhibit 3.
Exhibit 3: Description of defence mechanism
Defence mechanism Description
Humour (adaptive) An individual deals with internal/external stressors by emphasising amusing and ironic aspects.
Anticipation (adaptive) An individual deals with internal/external stressors by experiencing or anticipating consequences and emotional reactions in advance and considering realistic alternative responses or solutions.
Denial (maladaptive) An individual deals with internal/external stressors by refusing to acknowledge some painful aspects of external reality or subjective experience that is apparent to others.
Dissociation (maladaptive) An individual deals with internal/external stressors with a breakdown in the usually integrated functions of consciousness, memory, perception of self or the environment.
Isolation of affect (maladaptive) An individual deals with internal/external stressors by separating ideas from the feelings originally associated with them. The individual loses touch with the feelings associated with a given idea while remaining aware of the cognitive elements.
Projection (maladaptive) An individual deals with internal/external stressors by falsely attributing to another their own unacceptable feelings, impulses, or thoughts.
Acting out (maladaptive) An individual deals with internal/external stressors by actions rather than reflections or feelings and includes transference which is the reaction in present relationships of experiences from earlier childhood relationships.
Source: Adapted from American Psychiatric Association (1994, pp. 755-7; as cited in Bovey & Hede, 2001, pp. 537)
Bovey and Hede (2001) identified two intervention strategies that can be applied by
management during periods of change in organizations in order to address the effects of
defence mechanism on resistance. They further argued that once individuals demonstrate
symptoms of resistance, it is important to differentiate between the symptoms of resistance
and the causes behind it. In a performed study, Bovey and Hede (2001) aimed to identify,
measure and evaluate some of the unconscious motivations associated with an individual´s
level of resistance to organizational change (see Exhibit 4). They argued that behavioural
intention to resist is derived to measure an individual´s intentions to engage in either
supportive or resistant behaviour towards organizational change (Bovey & Hede, 2001,
pp.537). Management and leaders need to be aware of the ways that personal issues may
impact on an employee´s thoughts, feelings and behaviour once implementing change (Bovey
& Hede, 2001). Kotter and Schlesinger (1979) argued that when implementing change, it is
important to diagnose human resistance. They further stressed that it is necessary to
understand the individual in order to diagnose the true cause of the resistance. Bovey and
Hede (2001) argued that once the benefits of working with the human dimension are
understood and accepted, management is to be more inclined to develop, promote and
implement appropriate intervention strategies. In order to assist management to work
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with individual resistance, Bovey and Hede (2001, pp. 545) proposed two types of
intervention strategies. First, information-based interventions provide the individual with
information to create awareness and understanding of unconscious processes and how these
influence an individual´s motivations and behaviours in changing environment. Second,
counselling interventions focus on activities designed to assist individuals to analyse, interpret
and understand how their own defence mechanisms influence their perceptions and
motivations towards change. Ideally, counselling interventions support information-based
interventions (Bovey & Hede, 2001). Lawrence (1954, 1969) argued that the key to
the problem of resistance to change is to understand the true nature of resistance. Employees
usually resist social change, the change of their human relationships, rather than technical
change. Companies should use a range of tactics in conjunction to engage their employees as
early as possible and base their tactics on the type of transformation they are planning and
the methods to which company employees will respond best (Meaney and Pung, 2008).
Morrison and Milliken (2000) argued that organizational silence results as a critical barrier to
organizational change and developments, as well as a significant demoralizing force.
Exhibit 4: Framework for measuring behavioural intentions
Overt (openly expressive
behaviour)
Active (originate action)
Passive (no acting, inert)
Covert (Concealed behaviour)
Elements
• Resistance
• Oppose
• Argue
• Obstruct
• Support
• Initiate
• Embrace
Elements
• Resistance
• Observe
• Refrain
• Wait
• Support
• Agree
• Accept
Elements
• Resistance
• Stall
• Dismantle
• Undermine
• Support
• Support
• Co-operate
Elements
• Resistance
• Ignore
• Withdraw
• Avoid
• Support
• Give in
• Comply
Source: Adapted from Bovey & Hede (2001, pp. 540)
Approaches for Reducing Resistance to Change
What can be done to overcome resistance to change? Many scholars performed studies
in order to deliver relevant answer. Coch and French (1948) concluded that it is possible for
management to greatly modify or completely remove resistance to change in methods of
work. They suggested that this change can be accomplished by the use of group meetings
where management effectively communicates the need for change and stimulates group
participation in planning the changes. According to Meaney and Pung (2008), both,
employees and leaders need to be engaged in the transformation process. They showed that
even though the CEO or business unit leader was strongly involved in most transformation
projects, these leaders were much more involved and visible at companies where
transformation was successful. Executives who believe that their organizations transformed
themselves successfully are far likelier than others to say that their goals were both clearly
defined and truly transformational (Meaney and Pung, 2008). Kotter and Schlesinger (1979)
identified six methods for dealing with resistance to change:
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Education and persuasion: People should be educated about the need of change beforehand. This will help people see the need for and the logic of change. This can
involve one-to-one discussions, presentations, memos and reports.
Participation and involvement: The potential resisters can be involved in some aspect of the design and implementation of change.
Facilitation and support: Manager should be supportive and provide training in new skills, give employee time off after a demanding period or just listen and provide
emotional support.
Negotiation and agreement: Incentives can be offered to active or potential resisters.
Manipulation and co-option: Manipulation is the covert attempt to influence others to change and normally involves selective use of information and the conscious
structuring of events. One common form is co-option.
Direction and a reliance on explicit and implicit coercion: Managers essentially force people to accept a change by explicitly or implicitly threatening them or by
actually firing or transferring them.
For effort to be successful, manager should employ the approaches with sensitivity to
their strengths and limitations (see Exhibit 5 for detailed overview of common use,
advantages and drawbacks for each method) and appraise the situation realistically (Kotter
and Schlesinger, 1979).
Exhibit 5: Methods for dealing with resistance to change
Approach Commonly used in situations Advantages Drawbacks
Education & Communication
Where there is a lack of information of inaccurate information and analysis.
Once persuaded, people will often help with the implementation of the change.
Can be very time consuming if lots of people are involved.
Participation & Involvement
Where the initiators do not have all the information they need to design the change, and where others have considerable power to resist.
People who participate will be committed to implementing change, and any relevant information the have will be integrated in the change plan.
Can be very time consuming if participators design an inappropriate change.
Facilitation & Support
Where people are resisting because of adjustment problems.
No other approach works as well with adjustment problems.
Can be time consuming, expensive and still fail.
Negotiation & Agreement
Where someone or some group will clearly lose out in a change and where that group has considerable power to resist.
Sometimes it is a relatively easy way to avoid major resistance.
Can be too expensive in many cases if it alerts others to negotiate for compliance.
Manipulation & Co-optation
Where other tactics will not work or are too expensive.
It can be a relatively quick and inexpensive solution to resistance problems.
Can lead to future problems if people feel manipulated.
Explicit & Implicit coercion
Where speed is essential, and the change initiators possess considerable power.
It is speedy and can overcome any kind of resistance.
Can be risky if it leaves people mad at the initiators.
Source: Adopted from Kotter and Schlesinger (1979, pp: 111; 2008, pp: 136)
Once selecting optimal change strategy, the strategic options available to managers can
be thought of as existing on a continuum (see Exhibit 6; Kotter and Schlesinger, 1979).
At the one end, the change strategy calls for a rapid implementation, a clear plan of action and
little involvement of other and attempts to overcome resistance. At the other end, the strategy
calls for a slower change process with no detailed plan and involvement of many people and
attempts to reduce resistance to a minimum. In order to decide where change effort should be
positioned, it is important to look at four situational factors described in Exhibit 6. Kotter and
Schlesinger (1979) suggested that a manager can improve his chance of success
in an organizational change effort by: a/ conducting a detailed organizational analysis
identifying the current situation, problems and the forces that are possible causes for those
problems; b/ conducting an analysis of factors relevant to producing the needed changes;
c/ selecting a change strategy that specifies factors as described in Exhibit 6; and d/ monitoring
the implementation process. Pardo del Val and Fuentes (2003) suggested that managers should
pay special attention to certain topics. To reduce e.g. resistance caused by deep-rooted values,
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managers should consider whether organizational culture fits with change objectives and
provide training as a tool to surpass communication difficulties and thus reduce resistance.
Exhibit 6: Strategic continuum
Fast Slower
Clearly planned. Not clearly planned at the beginning.
Little involvement of others. Lots of involvement of others.
Attempt to overcome any resistance. Attempt to minimize any resistance.
Key situational variables
The amount and type of resistance that is anticipated.
The position of the initiators vis-à-vis the resisters (in terms of power, trust, and so forth).
The locus of relevant data for designing the change and the needed energy for implementing it.
The stakes involved (for example, the presence or lack of presence of a crisis, the consequences of resistance and lack of change).
Source: Adopted from Kotter and Schlesinger (1979, pp: 112; 2008, pp: 137)
According to Prediscan et al. (2013), reducing resistance to change is a well-defined
and crucial phase in a process of change implementation in organizations. For a successful
close of this phase, important resources such as necessary expertise in the field of change
management, action coordination by competent change agents, time and financial supply, are
necessary for motivating the affected employees by the change. Allen et al. (2007) suggested
that when developing change communication strategies, cascading approach may be most
beneficial. This means that senior management is to be provided with the more strategic
component of change communication and supervisors are to be provided with more practical
information that can be communicated to employees. Brower and Abolafia (1995) suggested
that managers, who wish to tap the change announcement embedded in resistance events,
should promote within their organization a tolerance for ambiguity and for multiple
interpretations of events and routines. Managers must give permission to surface issues that
are the organization´s deeply rooted “undiscussables” and, therefore, protected by defensive
routines (Argyris, 1990 as cited in Brower and Abolafia, 1995). Brower and Abolafia (1995)
further stated that managers need to monitor their organizations´ learning processes and may
also develop methods to monitor responses to resistance events. Kotter (1995; 1996) outlined
eight critical success factors for leading change which are illustrated and described in Exhibit 7.
Exhibit 7: Eight steps to transforming organization
1. Establishing a Sense of Urgency
•Examining market and competitive realities
•Identifying and discussing crises, potential crises, or major opportunities
2. Forming a Powerful Guiding Coalition
•Assembling a group with enough power to lead the change effort
•Encouraging the group to work together as a team
3. Creating a Vision
•Creating a vision to help direct the change effort
•Developing strategies for achieving that vision
4. Communicating the Vision
•Using every vehicle possible to communicate the new vision and strategies
•Teaching new behaviors by the example of the guiding coalition
5. Empowering Others to Act on the Vision
•Getting rid of obstacles to change
•Changing systems or structures that seriously undermine the vision
•Encouraging risk taking and nontraditional ideas, activities, and actions
6. Planning for and Creating Short- Term Wins
•Planning for visible performance improvements
•Creating those improvements
•Recognizing and rewarding employees involved in the improvements
7. Consolidating Improvements and Producing Still More Change
•Using increased credibility to change systems, structures, and policies that don’t fit the vision
•Hiring, promoting, and developing employees who can implement the vision
•Reinvigorating the process with new projects, themes, and change agents
8. Institutionalizing New Approaches
•Articulating the connections between the new behaviors and corporate success
•Developing the means to ensure leadership development and succession
Source: Adopted from Kotter (1995, re-printed 2007, pp. 99)
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Firoozmand (2014) stated that positioning change advocates across and within
the organization can strengthen actions to accentuate the positive and minimize the negative,
while encouraging participation and engagement. He referred to the stage two of the Kotter´s
model, though arguing that change leaders should look not just for catalysts and change
champions, but also for “early adopters” whose enthusiasm and support can be built upon.
Firoozmand (2014) stressed also the importance of communication and education, especially
where resistance is based on misunderstanding or inaccurate assumptions. According to
Kegan and Lashow Lahey (2001), resistance to change does not reflect opposition, nor is
it merely a result of inertia. Instead, many people are unwittingly applying productive energy
towards a hidden competing commitment, despite holding a sincere commitment to change.
The resulting dynamic equilibrium stalls the effort in what looks like resistance but is in fact
a kind of personal immunity to change. Kegan and Lashow Lahey (2001) discussed
the problematic of competing commitments and suggested process to help the employee
overcome own immunity to change: 1/ Notice and record current behaviour. 2/Look for
contrary evidence. 3/ Explore the history. 4/ Test the assumption. 5/ Evaluate the results.
Uncovering an employee´s competing commitment helps to explain behaviour that seemed
irrational and ineffective and that conflicted with what the manager and even the employee
are trying to achieve. They stated that “Helping people overcome their limitations to become
more successful at work is at the very heart of effective management.” (Kegan and Lashow
Lahey, 2001, pp. 86)
Exhibit 8: Seven levers for persuading others to embrace new ideas
1. Reason You present all relevant considerations of an idea, including its pros and cons.
2. Research You provide numerical and other information about your idea’s ramifications, or data relevant to your idea.
3. Resonance You and your ideas are convincing to your listener because of your track record, effective presentation, and sense of your audience.
4. Representational re-descriptions You deliver your message in a variety of formats, including stories, statistics, and graphics.
5. Resources and rewards You draw on resources to demonstrate the value of your idea and provide incentives to adopt your idea.
6. Real-world events You monitor events in the world on a daily basis and, whenever possible, draw on them to support your idea.
7. Resistances You devote considerable energy to identifying the principal resistances to your ideas (both conscious and unconscious resistances) and try to defuse them directly and implicitly.
Source: Adopted from Gardner (2004, as cited in Keller Johnson, 2004, pp. 3)
Gardner (2004, as cited in Keller Johnson, 2004, pp. 3) emphasized that leaders
seeking support for their ideas cannot rely on a single method of persuasion, they need to
employ tactics carefully tailored to affect disparate people. In his work, Gardner introduced
seven levers for breaking through resistance to new ideas. These levers are Reason, Research,
Resonance, Representational redescriptions, Resources and rewards, Real-world Events and
Resistances and are further presented in Exhibit 8. Gardner argued that with the use of these
seven levers, resistance to change can be reduced. The organizational leaders can design
the change implementation which attend to requisites that are influential to resistance to
change, such as mutuality, risk, input, propinquity, empathy and commitment (Simoes &
Esposito, 2014). Some people are leading change, while others are being led, and those
leading are usually further along the intellectual, emotional and behavioural transition than
those being led (Firoozmand, 2014).
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Summary and Conclusion
Presented paper critically discussed resistance to change in organizations and what
leaders can do to reduce resistance to change. First part introduced resistance to change
in the context of change management and relevant models. It further looked at resistance to
change in organization where several concepts were discussed. Among others, eight errors
common to organizational change efforts and their consequences (Kotter, 1996), reasons why
people resist change (Kotter and Schlesinger, 1979) and defence mechanism system (Bovey
and Hede, 2001). Research showed that individuals who are unconsciously inclined to use
maladaptive defences are more likely to resist organizational change and those who
unconsciously adopt adaptive defences are less likely to resist organizational change
(Bovey & Hede, 2001). It is important for management to work with the human factors
associated with resistance to aid the change process, such as unconscious processed in a form
of defence mechanisms, rather than focussing energy and attention on technical aspects only
(Bovey & Hede, 2001). Leaders and managers should apply intervention strategies in order to
assist the employee to identify and interpret their own perceptions of change and thus
developing greater understanding of self. Such personal growth and development is likely to
reduce the level of resistance through adjusted individual´s perceptions of organizational
change (Bovey & Hede, 2001). Second part focused on approaches for reducing resistance to
change. Main concepts were introduced by Kotter and Schlesinger (1979), Kotter (1996),
Kegan and Lashow Lahey (2001) and Gardner (2004). They stressed the importance
of communication and education in order to reduce resistance to change.
To conclude, change that does not have an impact on the organization is pointless.
Change cannot have an impact on an organization without also having an impact
on the people within it. Should they remain unaffected at the end of a change process, it is
valid to question its achievement and its purpose (Firoozmand, 2014). “Resistance, properly
understood as feedback, can be an important resource in improving the quality and clarity of
the objectives and strategies at the heart of a change proposal. And, properly used, it can
enhance the prospects for successful implementation.” (Ford & Ford, 2009, pp. 103) Area of
resistance to change offers sufficient space for future research.
Brief biographies of the author
Jeanny Paren is a Ph.D. student at the University of Economics in Prague, Faculty
of International Relations, where she also received her Bachelor and Master Degrees. She is
a business professional with more than 10 years of experience in sales, account and project
management, consulting, risk and financial analysis across a range of industries. She lives
in Frankfurt, Germany and her current research interests include a broader range of topics in
management, economics and finance.
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